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Post by mahdirannabiran18 on Apr 24, 2024 23:49:22 GMT 10
-# include <stdlib.h> # include <stdio.h> # include <time.h> # include <stdint.h>
# include "ziggurat.h"
int main ( ); void test01 ( ); void test02 ( ); void test03 ( ); void test04 ( ); void test05 ( int sample_num ); void test06 ( int sample_num ); void test07 ( int sample_num ); void test08 ( int sample_num ); void test09 ( ); void test10 ( ); void test11 ( ); void test12 ( );
/******************************************************************************/
int main ( )
/******************************************************************************/ /* Purpose:
MAIN is the main program for ZIGGURAT_TEST.
Discussion:
ZIGGURAT_TEST tests the ZIGGURAT library.
Licensing:
This code is distributed under the MIT license.
Modified:
16 October 2013
Author:
John Burkardt */ { int sample_num = 1000000;
timestamp ( ); printf ( "\n" ); printf ( "ZIGGURAT_TEST\n" ); printf ( " C version:\n" ); printf ( " Test the ZIGGURAT library.\n" ); /* Make sure that SEED controls the sequence, and can restart it. */ test01 ( ); test02 ( ); test03 ( ); test04 ( ); /* Measure the time it takes to generate 10,000 variables. */ test05 ( sample_num ); test06 ( sample_num ); test07 ( sample_num ); test08 ( sample_num ); /* Sample 10 values of the unsigned integer 32 bit generators. */ test09 ( ); test10 ( ); test11 ( ); test12 ( ); /* Terminate. */ printf ( "\n" ); printf ( "ZIGGURAT_TEST\n" ); printf ( " Normal end of execution.\n" ); printf ( "\n" ); timestamp ( );
return 0; } /******************************************************************************/
void test01 ( )
/******************************************************************************/ /* Purpose:
TEST01 tests SHR3_SEEDED.
Licensing:
This code is distributed under the MIT license.
Modified:
14 October 2013
Author:
John Burkardt */ { int i; int j; uint32_t seed; uint32_t value;
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( "TEST01\n" ); printf ( " SHR3_SEEDED returns pseudorandom uniformly distributed\n" ); printf ( " unsigned 32 bit integers.\n" );
for ( j = 0; j < 3; j++ ) { if ( ( j % 2 ) == 0 ) { seed = 123456789; } else { seed = 987654321; }
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( " %6d %12d %12u\n", 0, ( int ) seed, seed ); printf ( "\n" );
for ( i = 1; i <= 10; i++ ) { value = shr3_seeded ( &seed ); printf ( " %6d %12d %12u %12u\n", i, ( int ) seed, seed, value ); } }
return; } /******************************************************************************/
void test02 ( )
/******************************************************************************/ /* Purpose:
TEST02 tests R4_UNI.
Licensing:
This code is distributed under the MIT license.
Modified:
04 October 2013
Author:
John Burkardt */ { int i; int j; uint32_t seed; float value;
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( "TEST02\n" ); printf ( " R4_UNI returns pseudorandom uniformly distributed\n" ); printf ( " floats (single precision real numbers) between 0 and 1.\n" );
for ( j = 0; j < 3; j++ ) { if ( ( j % 2 ) == 0 ) { seed = 123456789; } else { seed = 987654321; }
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( " %6d %12d %12u\n", 0, ( int ) seed, seed ); printf ( "\n" );
for ( i = 1; i <= 10; i++ ) { value = r4_uni ( &seed );
printf ( " %6d %12d %12u %14f\n", i, ( int ) seed, seed, value ); } }
return; } /******************************************************************************/
void test03 ( )
/******************************************************************************/ /* Purpose:
TEST03 tests R4_NOR.
Licensing:
This code is distributed under the MIT license.
Modified:
14 October 2013
Author:
John Burkardt */ { float fn[128]; int i; int j; uint32_t kn[128]; uint32_t seed; float value; float wn[128];
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( "TEST03\n" ); printf ( " R4_NOR returns pseudorandom normally distributed\n" ); printf ( " floats (single precision real numbers) between 0 and 1.\n" );
r4_nor_setup ( kn, fn, wn );
for ( j = 0; j < 3; j++ ) { if ( ( j % 2 ) == 0 ) { seed = 123456789; } else { seed = 987654321; }
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( " %6d %12d %12u\n", 0, ( int ) seed, seed ); printf ( "\n" );
for ( i = 1; i <= 10; i++ ) { value = r4_nor ( &seed, kn, fn, wn );
printf ( " %6d %12d %12u %14f\n", i, ( int ) seed, seed, value ); } }
return; } /******************************************************************************/
void test04 ( )
/******************************************************************************/ /* Purpose:
TEST04 tests R4_EXP.
Licensing:
This code is distributed under the MIT license.
Modified:
14 October 2013
Author:
John Burkardt */ { float fe[256]; int i; int j; uint32_t ke[256]; uint32_t seed; float value; float we[256];
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( "TEST04\n" ); printf ( " R4_EXP returns pseudorandom exponentially distributed\n" ); printf ( " floats (single precision real numbers) between 0 and 1.\n" );
r4_exp_setup ( ke, fe, we );
for ( j = 0; j < 3; j++ ) { if ( ( j % 2 ) == 0 ) { seed = 123456789; } else { seed = 987654321; }
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( " %6d %12d %12u\n", 0, ( int ) seed, seed ); printf ( "\n" );
for ( i = 1; i <= 10; i++ ) { value = r4_exp ( &seed, ke, fe, we );
printf ( " %6d %12d %12u %14f\n", i, ( int ) seed, seed, value ); } }
return; } /******************************************************************************/
void test05 ( int sample_num )
/******************************************************************************/ /* Purpose:
TEST05 times SHR3_SEEDED.
Licensing:
This code is distributed under the MIT license.
Modified:
04 October 2013
Author:
John Burkardt */ { double ctime; int sample; uint32_t seed; uint32_t value;
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( "TEST05\n" ); printf ( " Measure the time it takes SHR3_SEEDED to generate\n" ); printf ( " %d unsigned 32 bit integers.\n", sample_num );
seed = 123456789;
ctime = cpu_time ( );
for ( sample = 0; sample < sample_num; sample++ ) { value = shr3_seeded ( &seed ); } ctime = cpu_time ( ) - ctime;
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( " Final value = %u\n", value ); printf ( " %f seconds\n", ctime );
return; } /******************************************************************************/
void test06 ( int sample_num )
/******************************************************************************/ /* Purpose:
TEST06 times R4_UNI.
Licensing:
This code is distributed under the MIT license.
Modified:
04 October 2013
Author:
John Burkardt */ { double ctime; int sample; uint32_t seed; float value;
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( "TEST06\n" ); printf ( " Measure the time it takes R4_UNI to generate\n" ); printf ( " %d uniformly random floats.\n", sample_num );
seed = 123456789;
ctime = cpu_time ( );
for ( sample = 0; sample < sample_num; sample++ ) { value = r4_uni ( &seed ); } ctime = cpu_time ( ) - ctime;
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( " Final value = %g\n", value ); printf ( " %f seconds\n", ctime );
return; } /******************************************************************************/
void test07 ( int sample_num )
/******************************************************************************/ /* Purpose:
TEST07 times R4_NOR.
Licensing:
This code is distributed under the MIT license.
Modified:
14 October 2013
Author:
John Burkardt */ { double ctime; float fn[128]; uint32_t kn[128]; int sample; uint32_t seed; float value; float wn[129];
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( "TEST07\n" ); printf ( " Measure the time it takes R4_NOR to generate\n" ); printf ( " %d normal random floats.\n", sample_num );
r4_nor_setup ( kn, fn, wn );
seed = 123456789;
ctime = cpu_time ( );
for ( sample = 0; sample < sample_num; sample++ ) { value = r4_nor ( &seed, kn, fn, wn ); } ctime = cpu_time ( ) - ctime;
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( " Final value = %g\n", value ); printf ( " %f seconds\n", ctime );
return; } /******************************************************************************/
void test08 ( int sample_num )
/******************************************************************************/ /* Purpose:
TEST08 times R4_EXP.
Licensing:
This code is distributed under the MIT license.
Modified:
14 October 2013
Author:
John Burkardt */ { double ctime; float fe[256]; uint32_t ke[256]; int sample; float value; uint32_t seed; float we[256];
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( "TEST08\n" ); printf ( " Measure the time it takes R4_EXP to generate\n" ); printf ( " %d exponential random float values.\n", sample_num );
r4_exp_setup ( ke, fe, we );
seed = 123456789;
ctime = cpu_time ( );
for ( sample = 0; sample < sample_num; sample++ ) { value = r4_exp ( &seed, ke, fe, we ); } ctime = cpu_time ( ) - ctime;
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( " Final value = %g\n", value ); printf ( " %f seconds\n", ctime );
return; } /******************************************************************************/
void test09 ( )
/******************************************************************************/ /* Purpose:
TEST09 tests CONG_SEEDED.
Licensing:
This code is distributed under the MIT license.
Modified:
16 October 2013
Author:
John Burkardt */ { int j; uint32_t jcong_new; uint32_t jcong_in; uint32_t jcong_old;
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( "TEST09\n" ); printf ( " CONG_SEEDED is a generator of pseudorandom uniformly\n" ); printf ( " distributed unsigned 32 bit integers.\n" ); printf ( "\n" ); printf ( " Input Seed Output Seed Output Value\n" ); printf ( "\n" );
jcong_new = 234567891;
for ( j = 1; j <= 10; j++ ) { jcong_old = jcong_new; jcong_in = jcong_new; jcong_new = cong_seeded ( &jcong_in ); printf ( " %12u %12u %12u\n", jcong_old, jcong_in, jcong_new ); }
return; } /******************************************************************************/
void test10 ( )
/******************************************************************************/ /* Purpose:
TEST10 tests KISS_SEEDED.
Licensing:
This code is distributed under the MIT license.
Modified:
16 October 2013
Author:
John Burkardt */ { int j; uint32_t jcong_in; uint32_t jcong_old; uint32_t jsr_in; uint32_t jsr_old; uint32_t w_in; uint32_t w_old; uint32_t value; uint32_t z_in; uint32_t z_old;
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( "TEST10\n" ); printf ( " KISS_SEEDED is a generator of pseudorandom uniformly\n" ); printf ( " distributed unsigned 32 bit integers.\n" ); printf ( "\n" ); printf ( " JCONG JSR W Z Value\n" ); printf ( "\n" );
jcong_in = 234567891; jsr_in = 123456789; w_in = 345678912; z_in = 456789123;
for ( j = 1; j <= 10; j++ ) { jcong_old = jcong_in; jsr_old = jsr_in; w_old = w_in; z_old = z_in; value = kiss_seeded ( &jcong_in, &jsr_in, &w_in, &z_in ); printf ( " In %12u %12u %12u %12u\n", jcong_old, jsr_old, w_old, z_old ); printf ( " Out %12u %12u %12u %12u %12u\n", jcong_in, jsr_in, w_in, z_in, value ); }
return; } /******************************************************************************/
void test11 ( )
/******************************************************************************/ /* Purpose:
TEST11 tests MWC_SEEDED.
Licensing:
This code is distributed under the MIT license.
Modified:
16 October 2013
Author:
John Burkardt */ { int j; uint32_t w_in; uint32_t w_old; uint32_t value; uint32_t z_in; uint32_t z_old;
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( "TEST11\n" ); printf ( " MWC_SEEDED is a generator of pseudorandom uniformly\n" ); printf ( " distributed unsigned 32 bit integers.\n" ); printf ( "\n" ); printf ( " Input W Input Z Output W Output Z Output Value\n" ); printf ( "\n" );
w_in = 345678912; z_in = 456789123;
for ( j = 1; j <= 10; j++ ) { w_old = w_in; z_old = z_in; value = mwc_seeded ( &w_in, &z_in ); printf ( " %12u %12u %12u %12u %12u\n", w_old, z_old, w_in, z_in, value ); }
return; } /******************************************************************************/
void test12 ( )
/******************************************************************************/ /* Purpose:
TEST12 tests SHR3_SEEDED.
Licensing:
This code is distributed under the MIT license.
Modified:
16 October 2013
Author:
John Burkardt */ { int j; uint32_t jsr_new; uint32_t jsr_in; uint32_t jsr_old;
printf ( "\n" ); printf ( "TEST12\n" ); printf ( " SHR3_SEEDED is a generator of pseudorandom uniformly\n" ); printf ( " distributed unsigned 32 bit integers.\n" ); printf ( "\n" ); printf ( " Input Seed Output Seed Output Value\n" ); printf ( "\n" );
jsr_new = 123456789;
for ( j = 1; j <= 10; j++ ) { jsr_old = jsr_new; jsr_in = jsr_new; jsr_new = shr3_seeded ( &jsr_in ); printf ( " %12u %12u %12u\n", jsr_old, jsr_in, jsr_new ); }
return; }#! /bin/bash # gcc -c -Wall -I/$HOME/include ziggurat_test.c if [ $? -ne 0 ]; then echo "Compile error." exit fi # gcc ziggurat_test.o /$HOME/libc/ziggurat.o -lm if [ $? -ne 0 ]; then echo "Load error." exit fi # rm ziggurat_test.o # mv a.out ziggurat_test ./ziggurat_test > ziggurat_test.txt if [ $? -ne 0 ]; then echo "Run error." exit fi rm ziggurat_test # echo "Normal end of execution."21 January 2020 11:16:19 AM
ZIGGURAT_TEST C version: Test the ZIGGURAT library.
TEST01 SHR3_SEEDED returns pseudorandom uniformly distributed unsigned 32 bit integers.
0 123456789 123456789
1 -1579999415 2714967881 2838424670 2 -2056153900 2238813396 658813981 3 1250077441 1250077441 3488890837 4 -474866960 3820100336 775210481 5 -1117447610 3177519686 2702652726 6 -610828464 3684138832 2566691222 7 -1143879506 3151087790 2540259326 8 -632459188 3662508108 2518628602 9 -52590674 4242376622 3609917434 10 -920365318 3374601978 3322011304
0 987654321 987654321
1 248404469 248404469 1236058790 2 2078538413 2078538413 2326942882 3 -1837283786 2457683510 241254627 4 1841886731 1841886731 4602945 5 305946223 305946223 2147832954 6 -1479565193 2815402103 3121348326 7 736910199 736910199 3552312302 8 -1327526410 2967440886 3704351085 9 1833747846 1833747846 506221436 10 1249087608 1249087608 3082835454
0 123456789 123456789
1 -1579999415 2714967881 2838424670 2 -2056153900 2238813396 658813981 3 1250077441 1250077441 3488890837 4 -474866960 3820100336 775210481 5 -1117447610 3177519686 2702652726 6 -610828464 3684138832 2566691222 7 -1143879506 3151087790 2540259326 8 -632459188 3662508108 2518628602 9 -52590674 4242376622 3609917434 10 -920365318 3374601978 3322011304
TEST02 R4_UNI returns pseudorandom uniformly distributed floats (single precision real numbers) between 0 and 1.
0 123456789 123456789
1 -1579999415 2714967881 0.160872 2 -2056153900 2238813396 0.653392 3 1250077441 1250077441 0.312321 4 -474866960 3820100336 0.680493 5 -1117447610 3177519686 0.129260 6 -610828464 3684138832 0.097604 7 -1143879506 3151087790 0.091450 8 -632459188 3662508108 0.086414 9 -52590674 4242376622 0.340499 10 -920365318 3374601978 0.273466
0 987654321 987654321
1 248404469 248404469 0.787792 2 2078538413 2078538413 0.041784 3 -1837283786 2457683510 0.556171 4 1841886731 1841886731 0.501072 5 305946223 305946223 0.000081 6 -1479565193 2815402103 0.226746 7 736910199 736910199 0.327087 8 -1327526410 2967440886 0.362486 9 1833747846 1833747846 0.617864 10 1249087608 1249087608 0.217779
0 123456789 123456789
1 -1579999415 2714967881 0.160872 2 -2056153900 2238813396 0.653392 3 1250077441 1250077441 0.312321 4 -474866960 3820100336 0.680493 5 -1117447610 3177519686 0.129260 6 -610828464 3684138832 0.097604 7 -1143879506 3151087790 0.091450 8 -632459188 3662508108 0.086414 9 -52590674 4242376622 0.340499 10 -920365318 3374601978 0.273466
TEST03 R4_NOR returns pseudorandom normally distributed floats (single precision real numbers) between 0 and 1.
0 123456789 123456789
1 -1579999415 2714967881 -1.348345 2 -2056153900 2238813396 0.321041 3 1250077441 1250077441 -0.689408 4 -474866960 3820100336 0.875903 5 -1117447610 3177519686 -1.036908 6 -610828464 3684138832 -0.749757 7 -1143879506 3151087790 -2.633581 8 -632459188 3662508108 -2.335211 9 -52590674 4242376622 -0.900580 10 -920365318 3374601978 -0.547212
0 987654321 987654321
1 248404469 248404469 0.678952 2 2078538413 2078538413 -1.028125 3 -1837283786 2457683510 0.233949 4 1841886731 1841886731 0.003315 5 736910199 736910199 -0.808394 6 -1327526410 2967440886 -0.635426 7 1833747846 1833747846 0.702161 8 1249087608 1249087608 -1.819247 9 2026661944 2026661944 -3.163224 10 1286162813 1286162813 -0.633432
0 123456789 123456789
1 -1579999415 2714967881 -1.348345 2 -2056153900 2238813396 0.321041 3 1250077441 1250077441 -0.689408 4 -474866960 3820100336 0.875903 5 -1117447610 3177519686 -1.036908 6 -610828464 3684138832 -0.749757 7 -1143879506 3151087790 -2.633581 8 -632459188 3662508108 -2.335211 9 -52590674 4242376622 -0.900580 10 -920365318 3374601978 -0.547212
TEST04 R4_EXP returns pseudorandom exponentially distributed floats (single precision real numbers) between 0 and 1.
0 123456789 123456789
1 1016977383 1016977383 0.164172 2 -2075197827 2219769469 0.174386 3 -1866214726 2428752570 0.135972 4 -1207428624 3087538672 1.292457 5 -1504984549 2789982747 0.022989 6 719266940 719266940 0.250433 7 71870932 71870932 0.413019 8 1060506829 1060506829 1.121728 9 727032026 727032026 1.850267 10 1543835729 1543835729 3.663504
0 987654321 987654321
1 248404469 248404469 1.270067 2 1841886731 1841886731 0.002059 3 1833747846 1833747846 0.382060 4 -715281282 3579686014 1.563694 5 2056904439 2056904439 0.959714 6 1806455956 1806455956 0.013664 7 -957733525 3337233771 3.042033 8 -1260874061 3034093235 0.452966 9 1742345012 1742345012 0.879560 10 -986807305 3308159991 0.323407
0 123456789 123456789
1 1016977383 1016977383 0.164172 2 -2075197827 2219769469 0.174386 3 -1866214726 2428752570 0.135972 4 -1207428624 3087538672 1.292457 5 -1504984549 2789982747 0.022989 6 719266940 719266940 0.250433 7 71870932 71870932 0.413019 8 1060506829 1060506829 1.121728 9 727032026 727032026 1.850267 10 1543835729 1543835729 3.663504
TEST05 Measure the time it takes SHR3_SEEDED to generate 1000000 unsigned 32 bit integers.
Final value = 3581807170 0.007390 seconds
TEST06 Measure the time it takes R4_UNI to generate 1000000 uniformly random floats.
Final value = 0.333954 0.031301 seconds
TEST07 Measure the time it takes R4_NOR to generate 1000000 normal random floats.
Final value = 0.0380214 0.015655 seconds
TEST08 Measure the time it takes R4_EXP to generate 1000000 exponential random float values.
Final value = 1.53775 0.084604 seconds
TEST09 CONG_SEEDED is a generator of pseudorandom uniformly distributed unsigned 32 bit integers.
Input Seed Output Seed Output Value
234567891 754257534 754257534 754257534 2156517229 2156517229 2156517229 3318866384 3318866384 3318866384 4083956247 4083956247 4083956247 2798093810 2798093810 2798093810 899179345 899179345 899179345 192314212 192314212 192314212 2912663963 2912663963 2912663963 2815317670 2815317670 2815317670 828024693 828024693
TEST10 KISS_SEEDED is a generator of pseudorandom uniformly distributed unsigned 32 bit integers.
JCONG JSR W Z Value
In 234567891 123456789 345678912 456789123 Out 754257534 2714967881 756869274 118418677 3759395650 In 754257534 2714967881 756869274 118418677 Out 2156517229 2238813396 1071839548 2242578315 4012434030 In 2156517229 2238813396 1071839548 2242578315 Out 3318866384 1250077441 1148488354 71421358 2816977735 In 3318866384 1250077441 1148488354 71421358 Out 4083956247 3820100336 638837524 1946566815 3289620212 In 4083956247 3820100336 638837524 1946566815 Out 2798093810 3177519686 1046385747 611607869 2792572631 In 2798093810 3177519686 1046385747 611607869 Out 899179345 3684138832 683493966 958134905 2947203765 In 899179345 3684138832 683493966 958134905 Out 192314212 3151087790 342406429 2370503868 2847676023 In 192314212 3151087790 342406429 2370503868 Out 2912663963 3662508108 834575224 44842599 1943886813 In 2912663963 3662508108 834575224 44842599 Out 2815317670 4242376622 716412734 590580459 3917199762 In 2815317670 4242376622 716412734 590580459 Out 828024693 3374601978 696934931 1314737558 209495054
TEST11 MWC_SEEDED is a generator of pseudorandom uniformly distributed unsigned 32 bit integers.
Input W Input Z Output W Output Z Output Value
345678912 456789123 756869274 118418677 437381274 756869274 118418677 1071839548 2242578315 1198389564 1071839548 2242578315 1148488354 71421358 304253602 1148488354 71421358 638837524 1946566815 1722999572 638837524 1946566815 1046385747 611607869 2744882259 1046385747 611607869 683493966 958134905 590760526 683493966 958134905 342406429 2370503868 421836061 342406429 2370503868 834575224 44842599 1881512824 834575224 44842599 716412734 590580459 3047069502 716412734 590580459 696934931 1314737558 1998610963
TEST12 SHR3_SEEDED is a generator of pseudorandom uniformly distributed unsigned 32 bit integers.
Input Seed Output Seed Output Value
123456789 2714967881 2838424670 2838424670 3758610316 2302067690 2302067690 2017378991 24479385 24479385 2239313674 2263793059 2263793059 2047104206 15929969 15929969 891119311 907049280 907049280 506781276 1413830556 1413830556 677621799 2091452355 2091452355 3598218379 1394703438 1394703438 3921199450 1020935592
ZIGGURAT_TEST Normal end of execution.
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Have All Cards 46652fff 47114191 a870fe43 61f00a2b 312073db 6b036250 a870fe43 61f00a2b 3cd5df7e bc21f0c0 a870fe43 61f00a2b 7e2b1c41 9e394f92 298ca9e8 2632e88d
2. Yu-Gi-Oh! The Eternal Duelist Soul Card Passwords March 16, 2003 7 Colored Fish 23771716 7 Completed 86198326 Acid Crawler 77568553 Acid Trap Hole 41356845 Air Eater 08353769 Air Marmot of Nefariousness 75889523 Akakieisu 38035986 Akihiron 36904469 Alligator's Sword 64428736 Alligator's Sword Dragon 03366982 Alpha The Magnet Warrior 99785935 Amazon of the Seas 17968114 Ameba 95174353 Amphibious Bugroth 40173854 Ancient Brain 42431843 Ancient Elf 93221206 Ancient Jar 81492226 Ancient Lizard Warrior 43230671 Ancient One of the Deep Forest 14015067 Ancient Telescope 17092736 Ancient Tool 49587396 Ansatsu 48365709 Anthrosaurus 89904598 Anti Raigeki 42364257 Anti-Magic Fragrance 58921041 Appropriate 48539234 Aqua Chorus 95132338 Aqua Dragon 86164529 Aqua Madoor 85639257 Arlownay 14708569 Arma Knight 36151751 Armaill 53153481 Armed Ninja 09076207 Armored Glass 36868108 Armored Lizard 15480588 Armored Rat 16246527 Armored Starfish 17535588 Armored Zombie 20277860 Axe Raider 48305365 Axe of Despair 40619825 Baby Dragon 88819587 Backup Soldier 36280194 Banisher of the Light 61528025 Barox 06840573 Barrel Dragon 81480460 Barrel Lily 67841515 Barrel Rock 10476868 Basic Insect 89091579 Battle Ox 05053103 Battle Steer 18246479 Battle Warrior 55550921 Bean Soldier 84990171 Beast Fangs 46009906 Beastking of the Swamps 99426834 Beastly Mirror Ritual Unknown Beautiful Headhuntress 16899564 Beaver Warrior 32452818 Behegon 94022093 Bell of Destruction 83555666 Beta The Magnet Warrior 39256679 Bickuribox 25655502 Big Eye 16768387 Big Insect 53606874 Big Shield Gardna 65240384 Binding Chain 08058240 Bio Plant 07670542 Black Dragon Jungle King 89832901 Black Illusion Ritual 41426869 Black Luster Ritual Unknown Black Luster Soldier Unknown Black Pendant 65169794 Black Skull Dragon Unknown Blackland Fire Dragon 87564352 Bladefly 28470714 Blast Juggler 70138455 Blast Sphere 26302522 Block Attack 25880422 Blue Eyes Toon Dragon 53183600 Blue Medicine 20871001 Blue-Eyed Silver Zombie 35282433 Blue-Eyes Toon Dragon 53183600 Blue-Eyes Ultimate Dragon 23995346 Blue-Eyes Ultimate Dragon Unknown Blue-Eyes White Dragon 80906030 Blue-Eyes White Dragon 89631139 Blue-Winged Crown 41396436 Boar Soldier 21340051 Bolt Escargot 12146024 Book of Secret Arts 91595718 Bottom Dweller 81386177 Bracchio-raidus 16507828 Breath of Light 20101223 Bright Castle 82878489 Burglar 06297941 Burning Spear 18937875 Buster Blader 78193831 Call Of The Haunted 97077563 Call of the Dark 78637313 Call of the Grave 16970158 Candle of Fate 47695416 Cannon Soldier 11384280 Castle Walls 44209392 Castle of Dark Illusions 00062121 Catapult Turtle 95727991 Ceasefire 36468556 Celtic Guardian 90101050 Celtic Guardian 91152256 Ceremonial Bell 20228463 Chain Destruction 01248895 Chain Energy 79323590 Chakra Unknown Change of Heart 04031928 Charubin the Fire Knight 37421579 Chorus of Sanctuary 81380218 Claw Reacher 41218256 Clown Zombie 92667214 Cockroach Knight 33413638 Cocoon of Evolution Unknown Commencement Dance Unknown Confiscation 17375316 Cosmo Queen Unknown Crab Turtle Unknown Crass Clown 93889755 Crawling Dragon #2 38289717 Crawling Dragon 67494157 Crazy Fish 53713014 Crimson Sunbird 46696593 Crow Goblin 77998771 Crush Card 57728570 Curse of Dragon 28279543 Curse of Fiend 12470447 Curtain of the Dark Ones 22026707 Cyber Commander 06400512 Cyber Falcon 30655537 Cyber Jar 34124316 Cyber Saurus 89112729 Cyber Shield 63224564 Cyber Soldier 44865098 Cyber-Stein 69015963 Cyber-Tech Alligator 48766543 DNA Surgery 74701381 Dancing Elf 59983499 Dark Artist 72520073 Dark Assailant 41949033 Dark Chimera 32344688 Dark Elf 21417692 Dark Energy 04614116 Dark Gray 09159938 Dark Hole 53129443 Dark Human 81057959 Dark King of the Abyss 53375573 Dark Magic Ritual Unknown Dark Magician 40609080 Dark Magician 46986414 Dark Magician Girl Unknown Dark Rabbit 99261403 Dark Rabbit 99261403 Dark Sage 92377303 Dark Shade 40196604 Dark Witch 35565537 Dark Zebra 59784896 Dark-Eyes Illusionist 38247752 Dark-Piercing Light 45895206 Darkfire Dragon 17881964 Darkfire Soldier #1 05388481 Darkfire Soldier #2 78861134 Darkness Approaches 80168720 Darkworld Thorns 43500484 De-Spell 19159413 Deck Virus 57728570 Deepsea Shark 28593363 Delinquent Duo 44763025 Destroyer Golem 73481154 Dian Keto the Cure Master Unknown Dice Armadillo 69893315 Dimensional Warrior 37043180 Disk Magician 76446915 Dissolverock 40826495 Dokuroizo the Grim Reaper 25882881 Dokurorider Unknown Doma The Angel of Silence 16972957 Doron 00756652 Dorover 24194033 Dragon Capture Jar 50045299 Dragon Piper 55763552 Dragon Seeker 28563545 Dragon Treasure 01435851 Dragon Zombie 66672569 Dragoness the Wicked Knight 70681994 Dream Clown 13215230 Driving Snow 00473469 Drooling Lizard 16353197 Dryad 84916669 Dunames Dark Witch 12493482 Dungeon Worm 51228280 Dust Tornado 60082869 Earthshaker 60866277 Eatgaboon 42578427 Eldeen 06367785 Electric Lizard 55875323 Electric Snake 11324436 Electro-Whip 37820550 Elegant Egotist 90219263 Elf's Light 39897277 Empress Judge 15237615 Enchanted Javelin 96355986 Enchanting Mermaid 75376965 Eradicating Aerosol 94716515 Eternal Draught 56606928 Eternal Rest 95051344 Exchange 05556668 Exile of the Wicked 26725158 Exodia the Forbidden One 33396948 Eyearmor 64511793 Fairy Dragon 20315854 Fairy's Hand Mirror 17653779 Fairywitch 37160778 Faith Bird 75582395 Fake Trap 03027001 Feral Imp 41392891 Fiend Kraken 77456781 Fiend Reflection #1 68870276 Fiend Reflection #2 02863439 Fiend Sword 22855882 Fiend's Hand 52800428 Fiend's Mirror Unknown Final Destiny Unknown Final Flame 73134081 Fire Kraken 46534755 Fire Reaper 53581214 Firegrass 53293545 Firewing Pegasus Unknown Fireyarou 71407486 Fissure 66788016 Flame Cerebrus 60862676 Flame Champion 42599677 Flame Ghost 58528964 Flame Manipulator 34460851 Flame Swordsman 40502030 Flame Swordsman 45231177 Flame Viper 02830619 Flash Assailant 96890582 Flower Wolf 95952802 Flying Kamakiri #1 84834865 Flying Kamakiri #2 03134241 Follow Wind 98252586 Forced Requisition 74923978 Forest 87430998 Fortress Whale Unknown Fortress Whale's Oath Unknown Frenzied Panda 98818516 Fusion Sage 26902560 Fusionist 01641882 Gaia Power 56594520 Gaia The Dragon Champion 66889139 Gaia The Fierce Knight 00603060 Gaia The Fierce Knight 06368038 Gaia the Dragon Champion 66889139 Gale Dogra 16229315 Gamma The Magnet Warrior 11549357 Ganigumo 34536276 Garma Sword 90844184 Garma Sword Oath 78577570 Garnecia Elefantis 49888191 Garoozis 14977074 Garvas 69780745 Gate Guardian 25833572 Gate Guardian Unknown Gatekeeper 19737320 Gazelle the King of Mythical Beasts 05818798 Gemini Elf 69140098 Genin 49370026 Germ Infection 24668830 Ghoul with an Appetite 95265975 Giant Flea 41762634 Giant Germ 95178994 Giant Mech-Soldier 72299832 Giant Rat 97017120 Giant Red Seasnake 58831685 Giant Scorpion of the Tundra 41403766 Giant Soldier of Stone 13039848 Giant Trunade 42703248 Giant Turtle Who Feeds on Flames 96981563 Gift of The Mystical Elf 98299011 Giga-tech Wolf 08471389 Giganto 33621868 Giltia the D. Knight 51828629 Glory of the King's Hand Unknown Goblin Fan 04149689 Goblin's Secret Remedy 11868825 Goddess of Whim 67959180 Goddess with the Third Eye 53493204 Gokibore 15367030 Graceful Charity 79571449 Graceful Dice 74137509 Grappler 02906250 Gravedigger Ghoul 82542267 Gravekeeper's Servant 16762927 Graverobber 61705417 Graveyard and the Hand of Invitation 27094595 Great Bill 55691901 Great Mammoth of Goldfine 54622031 Great Moth Unknown Great White 13429800 Green Phantom King 22910685 Greenkappa 61831093 Griffore 53829412 Griggle 95744531 Ground Attacker Bugroth 58314394 Gruesome Goo 65623423 Gryphon Wing 55608151 Guardian of the Labyrinth 89272878 Guardian of the Sea 85448931 Guardian of the Throne Room 47879985 Gust 73079365 Gust Fan 55321970 Gyakutenno Megami 31122090 Hamburger Recipe Unknown Hane-Hane 07089711 Haniwa 84285623 Happy Lover 99030164 Hard Armor 20060230 Harpie Lady 76812113 Harpie Lady Sisters 12206212 Harpie's Brother 30532390 Harpie's Feather Duster 18144506 Harpie's Pet Dragon 52040216 Harpies Feather Duster 18144506 Heavy Storm 19613556 Hercules Beetle 52584282 Hero of the East 89987208 Hibikime 64501875 High Tide Gyojin 54579801 Hinotama 46130346 Hinotama Soul 96851799 Hiro's Shadow Scout 81863068 Hitodenchak 46718686 Hitotsu-Me Giant 76184692 Holograh 10859908 Horn Imp 69669405 Horn of Heaven 98069388 Horn of Light 38552107 Horn of the Unicorn 64047146 Hoshiningen 67629977 Hourglass of Courage 43530283 Hourglass of Life 08783685 House of Adhesive Tape 15083728 Hungry Burger Unknown Hunter Spider 80141480 Hyo 38982356 Hyosube 02118022 Hyozanryu 62397231 Ice Water 20848593 Ill Witch 81686058 Illusionist Faceless Mage 28546905 Imperial Order 61740673 Insect Armor with Laser Cannon 03492538 Insect Monster Token Unknown Insect Queen 91512835 Insect Soldiers of the Sky 07019529 Inspection 16227556 Invader from Another Dimension 28450915 Invader of the Throne 03056267 Invigoration 98374133 Javelin Beetle Pact Unknown Javelin Beetle Unknown Jellyfish 14851496 Jigen Bakudan 90020065 Jinzo #7 32809211 Jinzo 77585513 Jirai Gumo 94773007 Judge Man 30113682 Just Desserts 24068492 Kagemusha of the Blue Flame 15401633 Kageningen 80600490 Kairyu-Shin 76634149 Kaiser Dragon 94566432 Kamakiriman 68928540 Kaminari Attack 09653271 Kaminarikozou 15510988 Kamionwizard 41544074 Kanan the Swordmistress Unknown Kanikabuto 84103702 Karate Man 23289281 Karbonala Warrior 54541900 Kattapillar 81179446 Kazejin Unknown Key Mace #2 20541432 Killer Needle 88979991 King Fog 84686841 King of Yamimakai 69455834 Kiseitai 04266839 Kojikocy 01184620 Kotodama 19406822 Koumori Dragon 67724379 Krokodilus 76512652 Kumootoko 56283725 Kunai with Chain 37390589 Kurama 85705804 Kuriboh 40640057 Kuwagata a 60802233 Kwagar Hercules 95144193 La Jinn the Mystical Genie of the Lamp 97590747 LaLa Li-oon 09430387 Labyrinth Tank 99551425 Labyrinth Wall Unknown Lady of Faith 17358176 Larvae Moth Unknown Larvas 94675535 Laser Cannon Armor 77007920 Last Day of Witch 90330453 Last Will 85602018 Laughing Flower 42591472 Launcher Spider 80703020 Launcher Spider 87322377 Lava Battleguard 20394040 Left Arm of the Forbidden One 07902349 Left Leg of the Forbidden One 44519536 Legendary Sword 61854111 Leghul 12472242 Leogun 10538007 Lesser Dragon 55444629 Light of Intervention 62867251 Lightforce Sword 49587034 Liquid Beast 93108297 Little Chimera 68658728 Little D 42625254 Lord of D 17985575 Lord of Zemia 81618817 Lord of the Lamp 99510761 Luminous Spark 81777047 Lunar Queen Elzaim 62210247 M-Warrior #1 56342351 M-Warrior #2 92731455 Mabarrel 98795934 Machine Conversion Factory 25769732 Machine King 46700124 Magic Jammer 77414722 Magic Thorn 53119267 Magic-Arm Shield 96008713 Magical Ghost 46474915 Magical Hats 81210420 Magical Labyrinth 64389297 Magician of Black Chaos Unknown Magician of Faith 31560081 Maha Vailo 93013676 Maiden of the Moonlight 79629370 Major Riot 09074847 Malevolent Nuzzler 99597615 Mammoth Graveyard 40374923 Man Eater 93553943 Man-Eater Bug 54652250 Man-Eating Plant 49127943 Man-Eating Treasure Chest 13723605 Man-eating Black Shark 80727036 Manga Ryu-Ran 38369349 Manga Ryu-Ran 38369349 Marine Beast 29929832 Masaki the Legendary Swordsman 44287299 Mask of Darkness 28933734 Masked Sorcerer 10189126 Master & Expert 75499502 Mavelus 59036972 Mechanical Snail 34442949 Mechanical Spider 45688586 Mechanicalchaser 07359741 Meda Bat 76211194 Mega Thunderball 21817254 Megamorph 22046459 Megazowler 75390004 Meotoko 53832650 Mesmeric Control 48642904 Messenger of Peace 44656491 Metal Detector 75646520 Metal Dragon 09293977 Metal Fish 55998462 Metal Guardian 68339286 Metalmorph 68540058 Metalzoa 50705071 Meteor Black Dragon Unknown Meteor Dragon Unknown Mikazukinoyaiba Unknown Millennium Golem 47986555 Millennium Shield 32012841 Millennium Shield 32012841 Milus Radiant 07489323 Minar 32539892 Minomushi Warrior 46864967 Mirror Force 44095762 Mirror Wall 22359980 Misairuzame 33178416 Molten Destruction 19384334 Monster Egg 36121917 Monster Eye 84133008 Monster Reborn 83764718 Monster Tamer 97612389 Monstrous Bird 35712107 Moon Envoy 45909477 Mooyan Curry 58074572 Morinphen 55784832 Morphing Jar #2 79106360 Morphing Jar 33508719 Mother Grizzly 57839750 Mountain 50913601 Mountain Warrior 04931562 Mr. Volcano 31477025 Muka Muka 46657337 Mushroom Man #2 93900406 Mushroom Man 14181608 Musician King 56907389 Mysterious Puppeteer 54098121 Mystic Horseman 68516705 Mystic Lamp 98049915 Mystic Plasma Zone 18161786 Mystic Probe 49251811 Mystic Tomato 83011277 Mystical Capture Chain 63515678 Mystical Elf 15025844 Mystical Moon 36607978 Mystical Sand 32751480 Mystical Sheep #1 30451366 Mystical Sheep #2 83464209 Mystical Space Typhoon 05318639 Needle Ball 94230224 Needle Worm 81843628 Negate Attack 14315573 Nekogal #1 01761063 Nekogal #2 43352213 Nemuriko 90963488 Neo the Magic Swordsman 50930991 Nimble Momonga 22567609 Niwatori 07805359 Nobleman of Crossout 71044499 Nobleman of Extermination 17449108 Novox's Prayer Unknown Numinous Healer 02130625 Obelisk the Tormentor Unknown Octoberser 74637266 Ocubeam 86088138 Ogre of the Black Shadow 45121025 One-Eyed Shield Dragon 33064647 Ooguchi 58861941 Ookazi 19523799 Orion the Battle King 02971090 Oscillo Hero #2 27324313 Oscillo Hero 82065276 Painful Choice 74191942 Pale Beast 21263083 Panther Warrior 42035044 Paralyzing Potion 50152549 Parasite Paracide 27911549 Parrot Dragon 62762898 Parrot Dragon 62762898 Patrol Robo 76775123 Peacock 20624263 Pendulum Machine 20404030 Pendulum Machine 24433920 Penguin Knight 36039163 Penguin Soldier 93920745 Perfectly Ultimate Great Moth Unknown Performance of Sword Unknown Petit Angel 38142739 Petit Dragon 75356564 Petit Moth 58192742 Polymerization 24094653 Polymerization 24094653 Polymerization 27847700 Pot of Greed 55144522 Power of Kaishin 77027445 Pragtical 33691040 Premature Burial 70828912 Prevent Rat 00549481 Princess of Tsurugi 51371017 Prisman 80234301 Prohibition 43711255 Protector of the Throne 10071456 Psychic Kappa 07892180 Pumpking the King of Ghosts 29155212 Punished Eagle 74703140 Queen Bird 73081602 Queen of Autumn Leaves 04179849 Queen's Double 05901497 Rabid Horseman Unknown Raigeki 12580477 Raimei 56260110 Rainbow Flower 21347810 Raise Body Heat 51267887 Rare Fish 80516007 Ray & Temperature 85309439 Reaper of the Cards 33066139 Red Archery Girl 65570596 Red Medicine 38199696 Red-Eyes Black Dragon 74677422 Red-Eyes Black Metal Dragon 64335804 Reinforcements 17814387 Relinquished 64631466 Remove Trap 51482758 Respect Play 08951260 Restructer Revolution 99518961 Resurrection of Chakra Unknown Reverse Trap 77622396 Revival of Dokurorider Unknown Rhaimundos of the Red Sword 62403074 Right Arm of the Forbidden One 70903634 Right Leg of the Forbidden One 08124921 Ring of Magnetism 20436034 Riryoku 34016756 Rising Air Current 45778932 Roaring Ocean Snake 19066538 Robbin' Goblin 88279736 Rock Ogre Grotto #1 68846917 Rogue Doll 91939608 Root Water 39004808 Rose Spectre of Dunn 32485271 Royal Decree 51452091 Royal Guard 39239728 Rude Kaiser 26378150 Rush Recklessly 70046172 Ryu-Kishin 15303296 Ryu-Kishin Powered 24611934 Ryu-Ran 02964201 Saber Slasher 73911410 Saggi the Dark Clown 66602787 Salamandra 32268901 Sand Stone 73051941 Sanga of the Thunder Unknown Sangan 26202165 Sea Kamen 71746462 Sea King Dragon 23659124 Seal of the Ancients 97809599 Sebek's Blessing 22537443 Sectarian of Secrets 15507080 Seiyaryu Unknown Sengenjin Unknown Senju of the Thousand Hands 23401839 Serpent Night Dragon Unknown Set Sail for the Kingdom Unknown Seven Tools of the Bandit 03819470 Shadow Ghoul Unknown Shadow Specter 40575313 Share the Pain 56830749 Shield & Sword 52097679 Shining Fairy 95956346 Shovel Crusher 71950093 Silver Bow and Arrow 01557499 Silver Fang 90357090 Sinister Serpent 08131171 Skelengel 60694662 Skelgon 32355828 Skull Dice 00126218 Skull Guardian Unknown Skull Knight Unknown Skull Red Bird 10202894 Skull Servant 32274490 Skull Stalker 54844990 Skullbird 08327462 Sleeping Lion 40200834 Slifer the Sky Dragon Unknown Slot Machine 03797883 Snake Fang 00596051 Snakeyashi 29802344 Snatch Steal 45986603 Sogen 86318356 Solemn Judgment 41420027 Solitude 84794011 Solomon's Lawbook 23471572 Sonic Bird 57617178 Sonic Maid 38942059 Soul Hunter 72869010 Soul Release 05758500 Soul of the Pure 47852924 Sparks 76103675 Spear Cretin 58551308 Spellbinding Circle 18807108 Spike Seadra 85326399 Spirit of the Books 14037717 Spirit of the Harp 80770678 Stain Storm 21323861 Star Boy 08201910 Steel Ogre Grotto #1 29172562 Steel Ogre Grotto #2 90908427 Steel Scorpion 13599884 Steel Shell 02370081 Stim-Pack 83225447 Stone Armadiller 63432835 Stone Ogre Grotto 15023985 Stop Defense 63102017 Stuffed Animal 71068263 Succubus Knight 55291359 Suijin Unknown Summoned Skull 70781052 Super War-Lion Unknown Supporter in the Shadows 41422426 Swamp Battleguard 40453765 Sword Arm of Dragon 13069066 Sword of Dark Destruction 37120512 Sword of Deep-Seated 98495314 Sword of Dragon's Soul 61405855 Swords of Revealing Light 72302403 Swordsman from a Foreign Land 85255550 Swordstalker 50005633 Tailor of the Fickle 43641473 Tainted Wisdom 28725004 Takriminos 44073668 Takuhee 03170832 Tao the Chanter 46247516 Temple of Skulls 00732302 Tenderness 57935140 Terra the Terrible 63308047 The 13th Grave 00032864 The Bewitching Phantom Thief 24348204 The Bistro Butcher 71107816 The Cheerful Coffin 41142615 The Drdek 08944575 The Eye of Truth 34694160 The Flute of Summoning Dragon 43973174 The Forceful Sentry 42829885 The Furious Sea King 18710707 The Immortal of Thunder 84926738 The Inexperienced Spy 81820689 The Little Swordsman of Aile 25109950 The Monarchy Unknown The Regulation of Tribe 00296499 The Reliable Guardian 16430187 The Shallow Grave 43434803 The Snake Hair 29491031 The Stern Mystic 87557188 The Thing That Hides in the Mud 18180762 The Unhappy Maiden 51275027 The Wandering Doomed 93788854 The Wicked Worm Beast 06285791 The Winged Dragon of Ra Unknown Thousand Dragon Unknown Thousand Dragon Unknown Three-Headed Geedo 78423643 Three-Legged Zombies 33734439 Thunder Dragon 31786629 Tiger Axe 40907090 Tiger Axe 49791927 Time Machine 80987696 Time Seal 35316708 Time Wizard 71625222 Toad Master 62671448 Togex 33878931 Toll 82003859 Tomozaurus 46457856 Tongyo 69572024 Toon Alligator 59383041 Toon Alligator 59383041 Toon Cannon Solider 79875176 Toon Gemini Elf 42386471 Toon Goblin Strike Team 15270885 Toon Magician Girl 90960358 Toon Mermaid 65458948 Toon Mermaid 65458948 Toon Summoned Skull 91842653 Toon Summoned Skull 91842653 Toon World 15259703 Toon World 15259703 Torike 80813021 Total Defense Shogun 75372290 Trakadon 42348802 Trap Hole 04206964 Trap Master 46461247 Tremendous Fire Unknown Trent 78780140 Tri-Horned Dragon Unknown Trial of Nightmare 77827521 Tribute to The Doomed 79759861 Tripwire Beast 45042329 Turtle Oath Unknown Turtle Tiger 37313348 Twin Long Rods #2 29692206 Twin-Headed Fire Dragon 78984772 Twin-Headed Thunder Dragon 54752875 Two-Headed King Rex 94119974 Two-Mouth Darkruler 57305373 Two-Pronged Attack 83887306 Tyhone #2 56789759 Tyhone 72842870 UFO Turtle 60806437 Ultimate Offering 80604091 Umi 22702055 Umiiruka 82999629 Unknown Warrior of Fiend 97360116 Upstart Goblin 70368879 Uraby 01784619 Ushi Oni 48649353 Valkyrion the Magna Warrior 75347539 Vermillion Sparrow 35752363 Versago the Destroyer 50259460 Vile Germs 39774685 Violent Rain 94042337 Violet Crystal 15052462 Vishwar Randi 78556320 Vorse Raider 14898066 Waboku 12607053 Wall Shadow Unknown Wall of Illusion 13945283 War-Lion Ritual Unknown Warrior Elimination 90873992 Warrior of Tradition 56413937 Wasteland 23424603 Water Element 03732747 Water Girl 55014050 Water Magician 93343894 Water Omotics 02483611 Waterdragon Fairy 66836598 Weather Control 37243151 Weather Report 72053645 Whiptail Crow 91996584 White Hole 43487744 White Magical Hat 15150365 Wicked Mirror 15150371 Widespread Ruin 77754944 Windstorm of Etaqua 59744639 Wing Egg Elf 98582704 Winged Cleaver 39175982 Winged Dragon,Guardian of the Fortress #1 87796900 Wings of Wicked Flame 92944626 Witch of the Black Forest 78010363 Witch's Apprentice 80741828 Witty Phantom 36304921 Wodan the Resident of the Forest 42883273 Wood Remains 17733394 World Suppression 12253117 Wow Warrior 69750536 Wretched Ghost of the Attic 17238333 Yado Karu 29380133 Yaiba Robo 10315429 Yamatano Dragon Scroll 76704943 Yami 59197169 Yaranzo 71280811 Zanki 30090452 Zera Ritual Unknown Zera The Mant Unknown Zoa 24311372 Zombie Warrior 31339260 Zone Eater 86100785 3. Yu-Gi-Oh! The Eternal Duelist Soul Cheats, Cheat Codes & Hints March 16, 2003 Unlock more duelists: After you battle and beat Yu-Gi, Joey, Tea, Tristen and Backura twice you unlock Mai, Weevil, Rex, Mako and Espa. They are harder.
List of opponents: 1. Tristan Taylor, Tea Gardner, Yugi Moto, Joey Wheeler, Bakura Ryou 2. Espa Roba, Mako Tsunami, Rex Raptor, Weevil Underwood, Mai Valentine 3. Umbra & Lumis, Arkana, Rare Hunter, Strings, Marik Ishtar 4. Yami Bakura, Ishizu Ishtar, Kaiba Seto, Shadi, Yami Yugi 5. Maximillion Pegasus, Simon, Duel Computer, Trusdale (supplied by: CoDeMsTr)
Get more card passwords: You probably already know this but if you collect cards, at the bottom, left corner there are eight digit numbers. Type them in, but 45% of japanese card passwords will not work. (supplied by: madmodena37)
Glitches, Misspelling: Put the arrow on the spot were the opposing Duelist Fusion deck is located and it read "Opponents Fusion Feck" instead of "Opponents Fusion Deck".
When you look at Acid Trap Hole, it reads "Frip 1 face-down defense position monster face-up" instead of "Flip 1 face-down defense position monster face-up."
Look at the Valkyrion The Magna Warrior card. It states that you must tribute alpha, beta, and "%4792" instead of "gamma". (supplied by: Kingkrum_2000)
Next levels: Second level: Defeat everyone in the first level two times. Third level: Defeat everyone in the second level three times. Fourth level: Defeat everyone in the third level four times. Fifth level: Defeat everyone in the fourth level five times. (supplied by: Kingkrum_2000)
Blue-eyes Ultimate Dragon: To summon The Blue-eyes Ultimate Dragon easier, summon cyber-stien activate his effect then select the Blue-eyes Ultimate Dragon as your fusion monster. (supplied by: yu-gi-oh04)
Get the best selection of Cheats, Codes, Walkthroughs/Guides/FAQs, Unlockables, Tips, Tricks, Secrets, and more from Cheat Code Central.
The Genie has more Yu-Gi-Oh! The Eternal Duelist Soul Cheats at CheatingDome.com. Print these cheats Game Boy Advance FAQs, Guides and Walkthroughs We currently don't have any Yu-Gi-Oh! The Eternal Duelist Soul FAQs, guides or walkthroughs for Game Boy Advance. Please check back at a later date for more guides and walkthroughs to be added. Game Boy Advance Savegames We currently don't have any Yu-Gi-Oh! The Eternal Duelist Soul savegames for Game Boy Advance. Please check back at a later date for more game saves to be added. Game Boy Advance Achievements and Trophies We currently don't have any Yu-Gi-Oh! The Eternal Duelist Soul achievement or trophy lists for Game Boy Advance. Please check back at a later date for more achievements and trophies to be added.
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Post by mahdirannabiran18 on Apr 26, 2024 15:05:03 GMT 10
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My Personal Dreams
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alhasan18 Full Member ***
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Posts: 109
My Personal Dreams Nov 28, 2020 16:36:44 GMT 11 Quote like
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Post by alhasan18 on Nov 28, 2020 16:36:44 GMT 11 Dream 1: To be absolutely the Mahdi (Age:0-17)(Abdi)
Dream 2: To Restore the Caliphate (Age 18 - 19) (Prince Arthur)
Dream 3: To Build the world to Allah's Design with The Other Leaders of Quraysh (Age 19-25) (The Mahdi)
Dream 4: To Build A School and Rule as it's Principal and teach my Family (Age 26 - 35) (Gakuho Asano)
Dream 5: To Clean up the World of Criminals as a Police Officer (Age 40 - 44) (Kureo Mado)
Dream 6: To be a Scholar,an Imam and Have The World to Teach.(Age 50 - 54) (Solomon Muto)
Dream 7: To enter Jannat ul Firdaws (Hikmatullah)
A Prophet's Dua
May Allah swt make this dunya easy for us. May He swt ease our affairs for us and grant us all that is good for us, in our deen, duniya and aakhirah. May Allah swt grant to those people who are looking out to get married, spouses who will be the coolness and comfort of their eyes. May He swt grant to those, who want to have children, beautiful, healthy and righteous children, who will become a means of comfort and Jannah for them. May Allah swt grant Shafaa to all the sick people, may He swt cure their illnesses. May He swt make the journey of aakhirah easy and beautiful for us.
Ameen. Last Edit: Feb 20, 2021 2:02:53 GMT 11 by alhasan18 mahdirannabiran18 Senior Member ****
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Posts: 476 Member is Online
My Personal Dreams Apr 8, 2024 19:46:16 GMT 11 Quote Edit like
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Post by mahdirannabiran18 on Apr 8, 2024 19:46:16 GMT 11
A Prophet's Dua
May Allah swt make this dunya easy for us. May He swt ease our affairs for us and grant us all that is good for us, in our deen, duniya and aakhirah. May Allah swt grant to those people who are looking out to get married, spouses who will be the coolness and comfort of their eyes. May He swt grant to those, who want to have children, beautiful, healthy and righteous children, who will become a means of comfort and Jannah for them. May Allah swt grant Shafaa to all the sick people, may He swt cure their illnesses. May He swt make the journey of aakhirah easy and beautiful for us.
Ameen. Dream 1: To be absolutely the Mahdi (Age:0-17)(Abdi)
Dream 2: To Restore the Caliphate (Age 18 - 19) (Prince Arthur)
Dream 3: To Build the world to Allah's Design with The Other Leaders of Quraysh (Age 19-25) (The Mahdi)
Dream 4: To Build A School and Rule as it's Principal and teach my Family (Age 26 - 35) (Gakuho Asano)
Dream 5: To Clean up the World of Criminals as a Police Officer (Age 40 - 44) (Kureo Mado)
Dream 6: To be a Scholar,an Imam and Have The World to Teach.(Age 50 - 54) (Solomon Muto)
Dream 7: To enter Jannat ul Firdaws (Hikmatullah)
a lifestyle blog for book lovers READ LISTEN SHOP JOIN Search Search Search... My list of 100 dreams. BY ANNE BOGEL IN MY LIFE, THE EXAMINED LIFE 49 COMMENTS | COMMENT
For almost 5 years, I’ve been trying to complete an exercise I first read about in Laura Vanderkam’s book 168 Hours: You Have More Time Than You Think: create a personal list of 100 dreams.
The idea is this: to help you think through how you want to spend your time (in the big-picture sense) brainstorm an unedited list of anything you want to do (or want to do more of) in your life.
I made my first attempt right after reading the book for the first time back in 2011. It was harder than I thought: I only put 27 items on my list.
I’ve made a couple of stabs at a full 100-item list since then. For some reason, this exercise has been on my mind recently, and when we prepped for our big drive down to Florida last week, I packed a legal pad and a pen and warned Will this was happening (and that I needed his ideas).
(This wasn’t actually all that unusual: we have a long history of talking Crazy Talk in the car.)
Logging 10.5 hours in the car (even when split over two days) has an upside: I did it.
There’s no way I’m posting the full list here (we could call it “too much typing,” but “too much vulnerability” is probably more like it) but today I’m sharing a snippet.
Here’s the deal: grab a pen and some paper and start writing. Don’t edit yourself, but I would encourage you to go for experiences over material things, and to think about the local stuff as well as the once-in-a-lifetime big experiences. I tried to keep things relatively concrete and measurable (as opposed to “experience world peace,” for example).
I divided my list into 3 sections to make brainstorming easier, and I’m preserving those categories here:
A selection from my list of 100 dreams:
Personal
Host dinner parties. Or start/join a supper club. Steward a Little Free Library. Take art classes. Go away for a girls’ weekend. Get really familiar with our local parks system. I want to know the trails like the back of my hand. Learn to use chopsticks. (I try, but I am terrible.) Plant a garden bursting with tulips. And a garden bed spilling over with zinnias. Find and perfect a signature dish. Learn to dance (ballroom, swing, I don’t even know). Do a pull-up. Travel
Visit the Pacific Northwest with the kids. And the California coast with the kids. Visit the Abbey of Gethsemani (local to us, but we’ve never been). And Mammoth Cave with the kids (also local, but I haven’t been since I was a kid). Revisit the International Wine Festival in Budapest (Will and I just happened to be in town for this the last time we were in Europe, and it was magical). Visit a ton of indie bookstores: Powell’s, Parnassus, the Little Bookstore of Big Stone Gap, and any others we happen to be near or can manage to get to. Take a small town road trip (definitely inspired by our recent experience). Visit the Grand Canyon. And at least five other national parks. (I’ve only been to Mt. Rainer …) Take the kids to Europe. Take an architecture tour in Barcelona. Professional
Write a few real book reviews. (I write about books a lot, but I rarely write formal reviews.) Develop stellar interview skills. Go on a writing retreat or take a formal writing class. Write some poetry as a skill-building exercise. Write a nonfiction book. And a novel. Write a long-form piece and publish it somewhere. Become an expert at something. Learn to take great photos. And edit them. Support others in their work in tangible, practical ways. Want to make your own list? Please do! And tell me a few things you would put on YOUR list in comments.
A,MEN...,,,|||B,Y,EG.O.O.D.B.Y.E,L.O,V.E!!!!!||||||||S?E?E?Y?A? ZOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOM-CHANGESENTERSANDMAN?
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{Me Forever} Who I am and What I am (No More to I but Me) Apr 25, 2024 10:46:00 GMT 11 Quote Edit like
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Post by mahdirannabiran18 on Apr 25, 2024 10:46:00 GMT 11 A
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{Me Forever} Who I am and What I am (No More to I but Me) Apr 25, 2024 12:15:42 GMT 11 Quote Edit like
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Post by mahdirannabiran18 on Apr 25, 2024 12:15:42 GMT 11 ~ADVERTISEthe late 1880s to describe a type of ironclad warship,[1] now referred to by historians as pre-dreadnought battleships. In 1906, the commissioning of HMS Dreadnought into the United Kingdom's Royal Navy heralded a revolution in the field of battleship design. Subsequent battleship designs, influenced by HMS Dreadnought, were referred to as "dreadnoughts", though the term eventually became obsolete as dreadnoughts became the only type of battleship in common use.
Battleships dominated naval warfare in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and were a symbol of naval dominance and national might, and for decades were a major intimidation factor for power projection in both diplomacy and military strategy.[2] A global arms race in battleship construction began in Europe in the 1890s and culminated at the decisive Battle of Tsushima in 1905,[3][4][5][6] the outcome of which significantly influenced the design of HMS Dreadnought.[7][8][9] The launch of Dreadnought in 1906 commenced a new naval arms race. Three major fleet actions between steel battleships took place: the long-range gunnery duel at the Battle of the Yellow Sea[10] in 1904, the decisive Battle of Tsushima in 1905 (both during the Russo-Japanese War) and the inconclusive Battle of Jutland in 1916, during the First World War. Jutland was the largest naval battle and the only full-scale clash of dreadnoughts of the war, and it was the last major battle in naval history fought primarily by battleships.[11]
The Naval Treaties of the 1920s and 1930s limited the number of battleships, though technical innovation in battleship design continued. Both the Allied and Axis powers built battleships during World War II, though the increasing importance of the aircraft carrier meant that the battleship played a less important role than had been expected in that conflict.
The value of the battleship has been questioned, even during their heyday.[12] There were few of the decisive fleet battles that battleship proponents expected and used to justify the vast resources spent on building battlefleets. Even in spite of their huge firepower and protection, battleships were increasingly vulnerable to much smaller and relatively inexpensive weapons: initially the torpedo and the naval mine, and later attack aircraft and the guided missile.[13] The growing range of naval engagements led to the aircraft carrier replacing the battleship as the leading capital ship during World War II, with the last battleship to be launched being HMS Vanguard in 1944. Four battleships were retained by the United States Navy until the end of the Cold War for fire support purposes and were last used in combat during the Gulf War in 1991, and then struck from the U.S. Naval Vessel Register in the 2000s. Many World War II-era battleships remain today as museum ships. History Ships of the line Main article: Ship of the line Napoléon (1850), the world's first steam-powered battleship
A ship of the line was a large, unarmored wooden sailing ship which mounted a battery of up to 120 smoothbore guns and carronades, which came to prominence with the adoption of line of battle tactics in the early 17th century and the end of the sailing battleship's heyday in the 1830s. From 1794, the alternative term 'line of battle ship' was contracted (informally at first) to 'battle ship' or 'battleship'.[14]
The sheer number of guns fired broadside meant a ship of the line could wreck any wooden enemy, holing her hull, knocking down masts, wrecking her rigging, and killing her crew. However, the effective range of the guns was as little as a few hundred yards, so the battle tactics of sailing ships depended in part on the wind.[citation needed]
Over time, ships of the line gradually became larger and carried more guns, but otherwise remained quite similar. The first major change to the ship of the line concept was the introduction of steam power as an auxiliary propulsion system. Steam power was gradually introduced to the navy in the first half of the 19th century, initially for small craft and later for frigates.[citation needed] The French Navy introduced steam to the line of battle with the 90-gun Napoléon in 1850[15]—the first true steam battleship.[16] Napoléon was armed as a conventional ship-of-the-line, but her steam engines could give her a speed of 12 knots (22 km/h), regardless of the wind. This was a potentially decisive advantage in a naval engagement. The introduction of steam accelerated the growth in size of battleships. France and the United Kingdom were the only countries to develop fleets of wooden steam screw battleships although several other navies operated small numbers of screw battleships, including Russia (9), the Ottoman Empire (3), Sweden (2), Naples (1), Denmark (1) and Austria (1).[17][2] Ironclads Main article: Ironclad warship The French Gloire (1859), the first ocean-going ironclad warship
The adoption of steam power was only one of a number of technological advances which revolutionized warship design in the 19th century.[citation needed] The ship of the line was overtaken by the ironclad: powered by steam, protected by metal armor, and armed with guns firing high-explosive shells.[citation needed] Explosive shells
Guns that fired explosive or incendiary shells were a major threat to wooden ships, and these weapons quickly became widespread after the introduction of 8-inch shell guns as part of the standard armament of French and American line-of-battle ships in 1841.[18] In the Crimean War, six line-of-battle ships and two frigates of the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed seven Turkish frigates and three corvettes with explosive shells at the Battle of Sinop in 1853.[19] Later in the war, French ironclad floating batteries used similar weapons against the defenses at the Battle of Kinburn.[20]
Nevertheless, wooden-hulled ships stood up comparatively well to shells, as shown in the 1866 Battle of Lissa, where the modern Austrian steam two-decker SMS Kaiser ranged across a confused battlefield, rammed an Italian ironclad and took 80 hits from Italian ironclads,[21] many of which were shells,[22] but including at least one 300-pound shot at point-blank range. Despite losing her bowsprit and her foremast, and being set on fire, she was ready for action again the very next day.[23] Iron armor and construction HMS Warrior (1860), the Royal Navy's first ocean-going iron-hulled warship
The development of high-explosive shells made the use of iron armor plate on warships necessary. In 1859 France launched Gloire, the first ocean-going ironclad warship. She had the profile of a ship of the line, cut to one deck due to weight considerations. Although made of wood and reliant on sail for most journeys, Gloire was fitted with a propeller, and her wooden hull was protected by a layer of thick iron armor.[24] Gloire prompted further innovation from the Royal Navy, anxious to prevent France from gaining a technological lead.[citation needed]
The superior armored frigate Warrior followed Gloire by only 14 months, and both nations embarked on a program of building new ironclads and converting existing screw ships of the line to armored frigates.[25] Within two years, Italy, Austria, Spain and Russia had all ordered ironclad warships, and by the time of the famous clash of the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia at the Battle of Hampton Roads at least eight navies possessed ironclad ships.[2] The French Redoutable, the first battleship to use steel as the main building material[26]
Navies experimented with the positioning of guns, in turrets (like the USS Monitor), central-batteries or barbettes, or with the ram as the principal weapon. As steam technology developed, masts were gradually removed from battleship designs. By the mid-1870s steel was used as a construction material alongside iron and wood. The French Navy's Redoutable, laid down in 1873 and launched in 1876, was a central battery and barbette warship which became the first battleship in the world to use steel as the principal building material.[27] Pre-dreadnought battleship Main article: Pre-dreadnought battleship Pre-Dreadnought USS Texas, built in 1892, was the first battleship of the U.S. Navy. Photochrom print c. 1898.
The term "battleship" was officially adopted by the Royal Navy in the re-classification of 1892. By the 1890s, there was an increasing similarity between battleship designs, and the type that later became known as the 'pre-dreadnought battleship' emerged. These were heavily armored ships, mounting a mixed battery of guns in turrets, and without sails. The typical first-class battleship of the pre-dreadnought era displaced 15,000 to 17,000 tons, had a speed of 16 knots (30 km/h), and an armament of four 12-inch (305 mm) guns in two turrets fore and aft with a mixed-caliber secondary battery amidships around the superstructure.[1] An early design with superficial similarity to the pre-dreadnought is the British Devastation class of 1871.[28][29]
The slow-firing 12-inch (305 mm) main guns were the principal weapons for battleship-to-battleship combat. The intermediate and secondary batteries had two roles. Against major ships, it was thought a 'hail of fire' from quick-firing secondary weapons could distract enemy gun crews by inflicting damage to the superstructure, and they would be more effective against smaller ships such as cruisers. Smaller guns (12-pounders and smaller) were reserved for protecting the battleship against the threat of torpedo attack from destroyers and torpedo boats.[30]
The beginning of the pre-dreadnought era coincided with Britain reasserting her naval dominance. For many years previously, Britain had taken naval supremacy for granted. Expensive naval projects were criticized by political leaders of all inclinations.[2] However, in 1888 a war scare with France and the build-up of the Russian navy gave added impetus to naval construction, and the British Naval Defence Act of 1889 laid down a new fleet including eight new battleships. The principle that Britain's navy should be more powerful than the two next most powerful fleets combined was established. This policy was designed to deter France and Russia from building more battleships, but both nations nevertheless expanded their fleets with more and better pre-dreadnoughts in the 1890s.[2] Diagram of HMS Agamemnon (1908), a typical late pre-dreadnought battleship
In the last years of the 19th century and the first years of the 20th, the escalation in the building of battleships became an arms race between Britain and Germany. The German naval laws of 1890 and 1898 authorized a fleet of 38 battleships, a vital threat to the balance of naval power.[2] Britain answered with further shipbuilding, but by the end of the pre-dreadnought era, British supremacy at sea had markedly weakened. In 1883, the United Kingdom had 38 battleships, twice as many as France and almost as many as the rest of the world put together. In 1897, Britain's lead was far smaller due to competition from France, Germany, and Russia, as well as the development of pre-dreadnought fleets in Italy, the United States and Japan.[31] The Ottoman Empire, Spain, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Chile and Brazil all had second-rate fleets led by armored cruisers, coastal defence ships or monitors.[32]
Pre-dreadnoughts continued the technical innovations of the ironclad. Turrets, armor plate, and steam engines were all improved over the years, and torpedo tubes were also introduced. A small number of designs, including the American Kearsarge and Virginia classes, experimented with all or part of the 8-inch intermediate battery superimposed over the 12-inch primary. Results were poor: recoil factors and blast effects resulted in the 8-inch battery being completely unusable, and the inability to train the primary and intermediate armaments on different targets led to significant tactical limitations. Even though such innovative designs saved weight (a key reason for their inception), they proved too cumbersome in practice.[33] Dreadnought era See also: Dreadnought
In 1906, the British Royal Navy launched the revolutionary HMS Dreadnought. Created as a result of pressure from Admiral Sir John ("Jackie") Fisher, HMS Dreadnought rendered existing battleships obsolete. Combining an "all-big-gun" armament of ten 12-inch (305 mm) guns with unprecedented speed (from steam turbine engines) and protection, she prompted navies worldwide to re-evaluate their battleship building programs. While the Japanese had laid down an all-big-gun battleship, Satsuma, in 1904[34] and the concept of an all-big-gun ship had been in circulation for several years, it had yet to be validated in combat. Dreadnought sparked a new arms race, principally between Britain and Germany but reflected worldwide, as the new class of warships became a crucial element of national power.[35]
Technical development continued rapidly through the dreadnought era, with steep changes in armament, armor and propulsion. Ten years after Dreadnought's commissioning, much more powerful ships, the super-dreadnoughts, were being built. Origin Vittorio Cuniberti
In the first years of the 20th century, several navies worldwide experimented with the idea of a new type of battleship with a uniform armament of very heavy guns.
Admiral Vittorio Cuniberti, the Italian Navy's chief naval architect, articulated the concept of an all-big-gun battleship in 1903. When the Regia Marina did not pursue his ideas, Cuniberti wrote an article in Jane's proposing an "ideal" future British battleship, a large armored warship of 17,000 tons, armed solely with a single calibre main battery (twelve 12-inch [305 mm] guns), carrying 300-millimetre (12 in) belt armor, and capable of 24 knots (44 km/h).[36]
The Russo-Japanese War provided operational experience to validate the "all-big-gun" concept. During the Battle of the Yellow Sea on August 10, 1904, Admiral Togo of the Imperial Japanese Navy commenced deliberate 12-inch gun fire at the Russian flagship Tzesarevich at 14,200 yards (13,000 meters).[37] At the Battle of Tsushima on May 27, 1905, Russian Admiral Rozhestvensky's flagship fired the first 12-inch guns at the Japanese flagship Mikasa at 7,000 meters.[38] It is often held that these engagements demonstrated the importance of the 12-inch (305 mm) gun over its smaller counterparts, though some historians take the view that secondary batteries were just as important as the larger weapons when dealing with smaller fast moving torpedo craft.[2] Such was the case, albeit unsuccessfully, when the Russian battleship Knyaz Suvorov at Tsushima had been sent to the bottom by destroyer launched torpedoes.[39] The 1903–04 design also retained traditional triple-expansion steam engines.[40] A preliminary design for the Imperial Japanese Navy's Satsuma was an "all-big-gun" design.
As early as 1904, Jackie Fisher had been convinced of the need for fast, powerful ships with an all-big-gun armament. If Tsushima influenced his thinking, it was to persuade him of the need to standardise on 12-inch (305 mm) guns.[2] Fisher's concerns were submarines and destroyers equipped with torpedoes, then threatening to outrange battleship guns, making speed imperative for capital ships.[2] Fisher's preferred option was his brainchild, the battlecruiser: lightly armored but heavily armed with eight 12-inch guns and propelled to 25 knots (46 km/h) by steam turbines.[41]
It was to prove this revolutionary technology that Dreadnought was designed in January 1905, laid down in October 1905 and sped to completion by 1906. She carried ten 12-inch guns, had an 11-inch armor belt, and was the first large ship powered by turbines. She mounted her guns in five turrets; three on the centerline (one forward, two aft) and two on the wings, giving her at her launch twice the broadside of any other warship. She retained a number of 12-pound (3-inch, 76 mm) quick-firing guns for use against destroyers and torpedo-boats. Her armor was heavy enough for her to go head-to-head with any other ship in a gun battle, and conceivably win.[42] HMS Dreadnought (1906)
Dreadnought was to have been followed by three Invincible-class battlecruisers, their construction delayed to allow lessons from Dreadnought to be used in their design. While Fisher may have intended Dreadnought to be the last Royal Navy battleship,[2] the design was so successful he found little support for his plan to switch to a battlecruiser navy. Although there were some problems with the ship (the wing turrets had limited arcs of fire and strained the hull when firing a full broadside, and the top of the thickest armor belt lay below the waterline at full load), the Royal Navy promptly commissioned another six ships to a similar design in the Bellerophon and St. Vincent classes.[citation needed]
An American design, South Carolina, authorized in 1905 and laid down in December 1906, was another of the first dreadnoughts, but she and her sister, Michigan, were not launched until 1908. Both used triple-expansion engines and had a superior layout of the main battery, dispensing with Dreadnought's wing turrets. They thus retained the same broadside, despite having two fewer guns.[43] Arms race See also: World War I naval arms race
In 1897, before the revolution in design brought about by HMS Dreadnought, the Royal Navy had 62 battleships in commission or building, a lead of 26 over France and 50 over Germany.[31] From the 1906 launching of Dreadnought, an arms race with major strategic consequences was prompted. Major naval powers raced to build their own dreadnoughts. Possession of modern battleships was not only seen as vital to naval power, but also, as with nuclear weapons after World War II, represented a nation's standing in the world.[2] Germany, France, Japan,[44] Italy, Austria, and the United States all began dreadnought programmes; while the Ottoman Empire, Argentina, Russia,[44] Brazil, and Chile commissioned dreadnoughts to be built in British and American yards. World War I See also: Naval warfare of World War I German High Seas Fleet during World War I
By virtue of geography, the Royal Navy was able to use her imposing battleship and battlecruiser fleet to impose a strict and successful naval blockade of Germany and kept Germany's smaller battleship fleet bottled up in the North Sea: only narrow channels led to the Atlantic Ocean and these were guarded by British forces.[45] Both sides were aware that, because of the greater number of British dreadnoughts, a full fleet engagement would be likely to result in a British victory. The German strategy was therefore to try to provoke an engagement on their terms: either to induce a part of the Grand Fleet to enter battle alone, or to fight a pitched battle near the German coastline, where friendly minefields, torpedo-boats and submarines could be used to even the odds.[46] This did not happen, however, due in large part to the necessity to keep submarines for the Atlantic campaign. Submarines were the only vessels in the Imperial German Navy able to break out and raid British commerce in force, but even though they sank many merchant ships, they could not successfully counter-blockade the United Kingdom; the Royal Navy successfully adopted convoy tactics to combat Germany's submarine counter-blockade and eventually defeated it.[47] This was in stark contrast to Britain's successful blockade of Germany. Britain's Grand Fleet
The first two years of war saw the Royal Navy's battleships and battlecruisers regularly "sweep" the North Sea making sure that no German ships could get in or out. Only a few German surface ships that were already at sea, such as the famous light cruiser SMS Emden, were able to raid commerce. Even some of those that did manage to get out were hunted down by battlecruisers, as in the Battle of the Falklands, December 7, 1914. The results of sweeping actions in the North Sea were battles including the Heligoland Bight and Dogger Bank and German raids on the English coast, all of which were attempts by the Germans to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet in an attempt to defeat the Royal Navy in detail. On May 31, 1916, a further attempt to draw British ships into battle on German terms resulted in a clash of the battlefleets in the Battle of Jutland.[48] The German fleet withdrew to port after two short encounters with the British fleet. Less than two months later, the Germans once again attempted to draw portions of the Grand Fleet into battle. The resulting Action of 19 August 1916 proved inconclusive. This reinforced German determination not to engage in a fleet to fleet battle.[49] Warspite and Malaya at Jutland
In the other naval theatres there were no decisive pitched battles. In the Black Sea, engagement between Russian and Ottoman battleships was restricted to skirmishes. In the Baltic Sea, action was largely limited to the raiding of convoys, and the laying of defensive minefields; the only significant clash of battleship squadrons there was the Battle of Moon Sound at which one Russian pre-dreadnought was lost. The Adriatic was in a sense the mirror of the North Sea: the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought fleet remained bottled up by the British and French blockade. And in the Mediterranean, the most important use of battleships was in support of the amphibious assault on Gallipoli.[50]
In September 1914, the threat posed to surface ships by German U-boats was confirmed by successful attacks on British cruisers, including the sinking of three British armored cruisers by the German submarine SM U-9 in less than an hour. The British Super-dreadnought HMS Audacious soon followed suit as she struck a mine laid by a German U-boat in October 1914 and sank. The threat that German U-boats posed to British dreadnoughts was enough to cause the Royal Navy to change their strategy and tactics in the North Sea to reduce the risk of U-boat attack.[51] Further near-misses from submarine attacks on battleships and casualties amongst cruisers led to growing concern in the Royal Navy about the vulnerability of battleships.
As the war wore on however, it turned out that whilst submarines did prove to be a very dangerous threat to older pre-dreadnought battleships, as shown by examples such as the sinking of Mesûdiye, which was caught in the Dardanelles by a British submarine[52] and HMS Majestic and HMS Triumph were torpedoed by U-21 as well as HMS Formidable, HMS Cornwallis, HMS Britannia etc., the threat posed to dreadnought battleships proved to have been largely a false alarm. HMS Audacious turned out to be the only dreadnought sunk by a submarine in World War I.[47] While battleships were never intended for anti-submarine warfare, there was one instance of a submarine being sunk by a dreadnought battleship. HMS Dreadnought rammed and sank the German submarine U-29 on March 18, 1915, off the Moray Firth.[47] The sinking of SMS Szent István, after being torpedoed by Italian motor boats
Whilst the escape of the German fleet from the superior British firepower at Jutland was effected by the German cruisers and destroyers successfully turning away the British battleships, the German attempt to rely on U-boat attacks on the British fleet failed.[53]
Torpedo boats did have some successes against battleships in World War I, as demonstrated by the sinking of the British pre-dreadnought HMS Goliath by Muâvenet-i Millîye during the Dardanelles Campaign and the destruction of the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought SMS Szent István by Italian motor torpedo boats in June 1918. In large fleet actions, however, destroyers and torpedo boats were usually unable to get close enough to the battleships to damage them.[citation needed] The only battleship sunk in a fleet action by either torpedo boats or destroyers was the obsolescent German pre-dreadnought SMS Pommern. She was sunk by destroyers during the night phase of the Battle of Jutland.[citation needed]
The German High Seas Fleet, for their part, were determined not to engage the British without the assistance of submarines; and since the submarines were needed more for raiding commercial traffic, the fleet stayed in port for much of the war.[54] Inter-war period
For many years, Germany simply had no battleships. The Armistice with Germany required that most of the High Seas Fleet be disarmed and interned in a neutral port; largely because no neutral port could be found, the ships remained in British custody in Scapa Flow, Scotland. The Treaty of Versailles specified that the ships should be handed over to the British. Instead, most of them were scuttled by their German crews on June 21, 1919, just before the signature of the peace treaty. The treaty also limited the German Navy, and prevented Germany from building or possessing any capital ships.[55] Profile drawing of HMS Nelson commissioned 1927
The inter-war period saw the battleship subjected to strict international limitations to prevent a costly arms race breaking out.[56] Scrapping of battleships in the Philadelphia Navy Yard, Pennsylvania, in December 1923
While the victors were not limited by the Treaty of Versailles, many of the major naval powers were crippled after the war. Faced with the prospect of a naval arms race against the United Kingdom and Japan, which would in turn have led to a possible Pacific war, the United States was keen to conclude the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. This treaty limited the number and size of battleships that each major nation could possess, and required Britain to accept parity with the U.S. and to abandon the British alliance with Japan.[57] The Washington treaty was followed by a series of other naval treaties, including the First Geneva Naval Conference (1927), the First London Naval Treaty (1930), the Second Geneva Naval Conference (1932), and finally the Second London Naval Treaty (1936), which all set limits on major warships. These treaties became effectively obsolete on September 1, 1939, at the beginning of World War II, but the ship classifications that had been agreed upon still apply.[58] The treaty limitations meant that fewer new battleships were launched in 1919–1939 than in 1905–1914. The treaties also inhibited development by imposing upper limits on the weights of ships. Designs like the projected British N3-class battleship, the first American South Dakota class, and the Japanese Kii class—all of which continued the trend to larger ships with bigger guns and thicker armor—never got off the drawing board. Those designs which were commissioned during this period were referred to as treaty battleships.[59] Rise of air power Bombing tests which sank SMS Ostfriesland (1909), September 1921
As early as 1914, the British Admiral Percy Scott predicted that battleships would soon be made irrelevant by aircraft.[60] By the end of World War I, aircraft had successfully adopted the torpedo as a weapon.[61] In 1921 the Italian general and air theorist Giulio Douhet completed a hugely influential treatise on strategic bombing titled The Command of the Air, which foresaw the dominance of air power over naval units.
In the 1920s, General Billy Mitchell of the United States Army Air Corps, believing that air forces had rendered navies around the world obsolete, testified in front of Congress that "1,000 bombardment airplanes can be built and operated for about the price of one battleship" and that a squadron of these bombers could sink a battleship, making for more efficient use of government funds.[62] This infuriated the U.S. Navy, but Mitchell was nevertheless allowed to conduct a careful series of bombing tests alongside Navy and Marine bombers. In 1921, he bombed and sank numerous ships, including the "unsinkable" German World War I battleship SMS Ostfriesland and the American pre-dreadnought Alabama.[63]
Although Mitchell had required "war-time conditions", the ships sunk were obsolete, stationary, defenseless and had no damage control. The sinking of Ostfriesland was accomplished by violating an agreement that would have allowed Navy engineers to examine the effects of various munitions: Mitchell's airmen disregarded the rules, and sank the ship within minutes in a coordinated attack. The stunt made headlines, and Mitchell declared, "No surface vessels can exist wherever air forces acting from land bases are able to attack them." While far from conclusive, Mitchell's test was significant because it put proponents of the battleship against naval aviation on the defensive.[2] Rear Admiral William A. Moffett used public relations against Mitchell to make headway toward expansion of the U.S. Navy's nascent aircraft carrier program.[64] Rearmament
The Royal Navy, United States Navy, and Imperial Japanese Navy extensively upgraded and modernized their World War I–era battleships during the 1930s. Among the new features were an increased tower height and stability for the optical rangefinder equipment (for gunnery control), more armor (especially around turrets) to protect against plunging fire and aerial bombing, and additional anti-aircraft weapons. Some British ships received a large block superstructure nicknamed the "Queen Anne's castle", such as in Queen Elizabeth and Warspite, which would be used in the new conning towers of the King George V-class fast battleships. External bulges were added to improve both buoyancy to counteract weight increase and provide underwater protection against mines and torpedoes. The Japanese rebuilt all of their battleships, plus their battlecruisers, with distinctive "pagoda" structures, though the Hiei received a more modern bridge tower that would influence the new Yamato class. Bulges were fitted, including steel tube arrays to improve both underwater and vertical protection along the waterline. The U.S. experimented with cage masts and later tripod masts, though after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor some of the most severely damaged ships (such as West Virginia and California) were rebuilt with tower masts, for an appearance similar to their Iowa-class contemporaries. Radar, which was effective beyond visual range and effective in complete darkness or adverse weather, was introduced to supplement optical fire control.[65]
Even when war threatened again in the late 1930s, battleship construction did not regain the level of importance it had held in the years before World War I. The "building holiday" imposed by the naval treaties meant the capacity of dockyards worldwide had shrunk, and the strategic position had changed.[66]
In Germany, the ambitious Plan Z for naval rearmament was abandoned in favor of a strategy of submarine warfare supplemented by the use of battlecruisers and commerce raiding (in particular by Bismarck-class battleships). In Britain, the most pressing need was for air defenses and convoy escorts to safeguard the civilian population from bombing or starvation, and re-armament construction plans consisted of five ships of the King George V class. It was in the Mediterranean that navies remained most committed to battleship warfare. France intended to build six battleships of the Dunkerque and Richelieu classes, and the Italians four Littorio-class ships. Neither navy built significant aircraft carriers. The U.S. preferred to spend limited funds on aircraft carriers until the South Dakota class. Japan, also prioritising aircraft carriers, nevertheless began work on three mammoth Yamatos (although the third, Shinano, was later completed as a carrier) and a planned fourth was cancelled.[13]
At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, the Spanish navy included only two small dreadnought battleships, España and Jaime I. España (originally named Alfonso XIII), by then in reserve at the northwestern naval base of El Ferrol, fell into Nationalist hands in July 1936. The crew aboard Jaime I remained loyal to the Republic, killed their officers, who apparently supported Franco's attempted coup, and joined the Republican Navy. Thus each side had one battleship; however, the Republican Navy generally lacked experienced officers. The Spanish battleships mainly restricted themselves to mutual blockades, convoy escort duties, and shore bombardment, rarely in direct fighting against other surface units.[67] In April 1937, España ran into a mine laid by friendly forces, and sank with little loss of life. In May 1937, Jaime I was damaged by Nationalist air attacks and a grounding incident. The ship was forced to go back to port to be repaired. There she was again hit by several aerial bombs. It was then decided to tow the battleship to a more secure port, but during the transport she suffered an internal explosion that caused 300 deaths and her total loss. Several Italian and German capital ships participated in the non-intervention blockade. On May 29, 1937, two Republican aircraft managed to bomb the German pocket battleship Deutschland outside Ibiza, causing severe damage and loss of life. Admiral Scheer retaliated two days later by bombarding Almería, causing much destruction, and the resulting Deutschland incident meant the end of German and Italian participation in non-intervention.[68] World War II Main article: Battleships in World War II See also: List of battleships of the Second World War Imperial Japanese Navy's Yamato, seen here under air attack in 1945, and her sister ship Musashi (1940) were the heaviest battleships in history. Pennsylvania leading battleship Colorado and cruisers Louisville, Portland, and Columbia into Lingayen Gulf, Philippines, January 1945
The Schleswig-Holstein—an obsolete pre-dreadnought—fired the first shots of World War II with the bombardment of the Polish garrison at Westerplatte;[69] and the final surrender of the Japanese Empire took place aboard a United States Navy battleship, USS Missouri. Between those two events, it had become clear that aircraft carriers were the new principal ships of the fleet and that battleships now performed a secondary role.
Battleships played a part in major engagements in Atlantic, Pacific and Mediterranean theaters; in the Atlantic, the Germans used their battleships as independent commerce raiders. However, clashes between battleships were of little strategic importance. The Battle of the Atlantic was fought between destroyers and submarines, and most of the decisive fleet clashes of the Pacific war were determined by aircraft carriers.
In the first year of the war, armored warships defied predictions that aircraft would dominate naval warfare. Scharnhorst and Gneisenau surprised and sank the aircraft carrier Glorious off western Norway in June 1940.[70] This engagement marked the only time a fleet carrier was sunk by surface gunnery. In the attack on Mers-el-Kébir, British battleships opened fire on the French battleships in the harbor near Oran in Algeria with their heavy guns. The fleeing French ships were then pursued by planes from aircraft carriers.
The subsequent years of the war saw many demonstrations of the maturity of the aircraft carrier as a strategic naval weapon and its effectiveness against battleships. The British air attack on the Italian naval base at Taranto sank one Italian battleship and damaged two more. The same Swordfish torpedo bombers played a crucial role in sinking the German battleship Bismarck.
On December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. Within a short time, five of eight U.S. battleships were sunk or sinking, with the rest damaged. All three American aircraft carriers were out to sea, however, and evaded destruction. The sinking of the British battleship Prince of Wales and battlecruiser Repulse, demonstrated the vulnerability of a battleship to air attack while at sea without sufficient air cover, settling the argument begun by Mitchell in 1921. Both warships were under way and en route to attack the Japanese amphibious force that had invaded Malaya when they were caught by Japanese land-based bombers and torpedo bombers on December 10, 1941.[71] Haruna attacked by U.S. Navy carrier aircraft at Kure air raid, 28 July 1945
At many of the early crucial battles of the Pacific, for instance Coral Sea and Midway, battleships were either absent or overshadowed as carriers launched wave after wave of planes into the attack at a range of hundreds of miles. In later battles in the Pacific, battleships primarily performed shore bombardment in support of amphibious landings and provided anti-aircraft defense as escort for the carriers. Even the largest battleships ever constructed, Japan's Yamato class, which carried a main battery of nine 18-inch (46 cm) guns and were designed as a principal strategic weapon, were never given a chance to show their potential in the decisive battleship action that figured in Japanese pre-war planning.[72]
The last battleship confrontation in history was the Battle of Surigao Strait, on October 25, 1944, in which a numerically and technically superior American battleship group destroyed a lesser Japanese battleship group by gunfire after it had already been devastated by destroyer torpedo attacks. All but one of the American battleships in this confrontation had previously been sunk during the attack on Pearl Harbor and subsequently raised and repaired. Mississippi fired the last major-caliber salvo of this battle.[73] In April 1945, during the battle for Okinawa, the world's most powerful battleship,[74] the Yamato, was sent out on a suicide mission against a massive U.S. force and sunk by overwhelming pressure from carrier aircraft with nearly all hands lost. After that, Japanese fleet remaining in the mainland was also destroyed by the US naval air force. Cold War Operation Crossroads
After World War II, several navies retained their existing battleships, but they were no longer strategically dominant military assets. It soon became apparent that they were no longer worth the considerable cost of construction and maintenance and only one new battleship was commissioned after the war, HMS Vanguard. During the war it had been demonstrated that battleship-on-battleship engagements like Leyte Gulf or the sinking of HMS Hood were the exception and not the rule, and with the growing role of aircraft engagement ranges were becoming longer and longer, making heavy gun armament irrelevant. The armor of a battleship was equally irrelevant in the face of a nuclear attack as tactical missiles with a range of 100 kilometres (60 mi) or more could be mounted on the Soviet Kildin-class destroyer and Whiskey-class submarines. By the end of the 1950s, smaller vessel classes such as destroyers, which formerly offered no noteworthy opposition to battleships, now were capable of eliminating battleships from outside the range of the ship's heavy guns.
The remaining battleships met a variety of ends. USS Arkansas and Nagato were sunk during the testing of nuclear weapons in Operation Crossroads in 1946. Both battleships proved resistant to nuclear air burst but vulnerable to underwater nuclear explosions.[75] The Giulio Cesare was taken by the Soviets as reparations and renamed Novorossiysk; she was sunk by a leftover German mine in the Black Sea on October 29, 1955. The two Andrea Doria-class ships were scrapped in 1956.[76] The French Lorraine was scrapped in 1954, Richelieu in 1968,[77] and Jean Bart in 1970.[78] United States Battleship naval fleet in 1987, during the Cold War
The United Kingdom's four surviving King George V-class ships were scrapped in 1957,[79] and Vanguard followed in 1960.[80] All other surviving British battleships had been sold or broken up by 1949.[81] The Soviet Union's Marat was scrapped in 1953, Parizhskaya Kommuna in 1957 and Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya (back under her original name, Gangut, since 1942)[82] in 1956–57.[82] Brazil's Minas Geraes was scrapped in Genoa in 1953,[83] and her sister ship São Paulo sank during a storm in the Atlantic en route to the breakers in Italy in 1951.[83]
Argentina kept its two Rivadavia-class ships until 1956 and Chile kept Almirante Latorre (formerly HMS Canada) until 1959.[84] The Turkish battlecruiser Yavûz (formerly SMS Goeben, launched in 1911) was scrapped in 1976 after an offer to sell her back to Germany was refused. Sweden had several small coastal-defense battleships, one of which, HSwMS Gustav V, survived until 1970.[85] The Soviets scrapped four large incomplete cruisers in the late 1950s, whilst plans to build a number of new Stalingrad-class battlecruisers were abandoned following the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953.[86] The three old German battleships Schleswig-Holstein, Schlesien, and Hessen all met similar ends. Hessen was taken over by the Soviet Union and renamed Tsel. She was scrapped in 1960. Schleswig-Holstein was renamed Borodino, and was used as a target ship until 1960. Schlesien, too, was used as a target ship. She was broken up between 1952 and 1957.[87] USS Missouri launches a Tomahawk missile during Operation Desert Storm.
The Iowa-class battleships gained a new lease of life in the U.S. Navy as fire support ships. Radar and computer-controlled gunfire could be aimed with pinpoint accuracy to target. The U.S. recommissioned all four Iowa-class battleships for the Korean War and the New Jersey for the Vietnam War. These were primarily used for shore bombardment, New Jersey firing nearly 6,000 rounds of 16 inch shells and over 14,000 rounds of 5 inch projectiles during her tour on the gunline,[88] seven times more rounds against shore targets in Vietnam than she had fired in the Second World War.[89]
As part of Navy Secretary John F. Lehman's effort to build a 600-ship Navy in the 1980s, and in response to the commissioning of Kirov by the Soviet Union, the United States recommissioned all four Iowa-class battleships. On several occasions, battleships were support ships in carrier battle groups, or led their own battleship battle group. These were modernized to carry Tomahawk (TLAM) missiles, with New Jersey seeing action bombarding Lebanon in 1983 and 1984, while Missouri and Wisconsin fired their 16-inch (406 mm) guns at land targets and launched missiles during Operation Desert Storm in 1991. Wisconsin served as the TLAM strike commander for the Persian Gulf, directing the sequence of launches that marked the opening of Desert Storm, firing a total of 24 TLAMs during the first two days of the campaign. The primary threat to the battleships were Iraqi shore-based surface-to-surface missiles; Missouri was targeted by two Iraqi Silkworm missiles, with one missing and another being intercepted by the British destroyer HMS Gloucester.[90] End of the battleship era The American Texas (1912) is the only preserved example of a Dreadnought-type battleship that dates to the time of the original HMS Dreadnought.
After Indiana was stricken in 1962, the four Iowa-class ships were the only battleships in commission or reserve anywhere in the world. There was an extended debate when the four Iowa ships were finally decommissioned in the early 1990s. USS Iowa and USS Wisconsin were maintained to a standard whereby they could be rapidly returned to service as fire support vessels, pending the development of a superior fire support vessel. These last two battleships were finally stricken from the U.S. Naval Vessel Register in 2006.[91][92][93] The Military Balance and Russian Foreign Military Review states the U.S. Navy listed one battleship in the reserve (Naval Inactive Fleet/Reserve 2nd Turn) in 2010.[94][95] The Military Balance states the U.S. Navy listed no battleships in the reserve in 2014.[96]
When the last Iowa-class ship was finally stricken from the Naval Vessel Registry, no battleships remained in service or in reserve with any navy worldwide. A number are preserved as museum ships, either afloat or in drydock. The U.S. has eight battleships on display: Massachusetts, North Carolina, Alabama, Iowa, New Jersey, Missouri, Wisconsin, and Texas. Missouri and New Jersey are museums at Pearl Harbor and Camden, New Jersey, respectively. Iowa is on display as an educational attraction at the Los Angeles Waterfront in San Pedro, California. Wisconsin now serves as a museum ship in Norfolk, Virginia.[97] Massachusetts, which has the distinction of never having lost a man during service, is on display at the Battleship Cove naval museum in Fall River, Massachusetts.[98] Texas, the first battleship turned into a museum, is normally on display at the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site, near Houston, but as of 2021 is closed for repairs.[99] North Carolina is on display in Wilmington, North Carolina. Alabama is on display in Mobile, Alabama. The wreck of Arizona, sunk during the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941, is designated a historical landmark and national gravesite. The wreck of Utah, also sunk during the attack, is a historic landmark.
The only other 20th-century battleship on display is the Japanese pre-dreadnought Mikasa. A replica of the ironclad battleship Dingyuan was built by the Weihai Port Bureau in 2003 and is on display in Weihai, China.[citation needed]
Former battleships that were previously used as museum ships included USS Oregon (BB-3), SMS Tegetthoff, and SMS Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand. Strategy and doctrine Doctrine USS Iowa fires a full broadside of her nine 16″/50 and six 5″/38 guns during a target exercise.
Battleships were the embodiment of sea power. For American naval officer Alfred Thayer Mahan and his followers, a strong navy was vital to the success of a nation, and control of the seas was vital for the projection of force on land and overseas. Mahan's theory, proposed in The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783 of 1890, dictated the role of the battleship was to sweep the enemy from the seas.[100] While the work of escorting, blockading, and raiding might be done by cruisers or smaller vessels, the presence of the battleship was a potential threat to any convoy escorted by any vessels other than capital ships. This concept of "potential threat" can be further generalized to the mere existence (as opposed to presence) of a powerful fleet tying the opposing fleet down. This concept came to be known as a "fleet in being"—an idle yet mighty fleet forcing others to spend time, resource and effort to actively guard against it.[citation needed]
Mahan went on to say victory could only be achieved by engagements between battleships, which came to be known as the decisive battle doctrine in some navies, while targeting merchant ships (commerce raiding or guerre de course, as posited by the Jeune École) could never succeed.[101]
Mahan was highly influential in naval and political circles throughout the age of the battleship,[2][102] calling for a large fleet of the most powerful battleships possible. Mahan's work developed in the late 1880s, and by the end of the 1890s it had acquired much international influence on naval strategy;[2] in the end, it was adopted by many major navies (notably the British, American, German, and Japanese). The strength of Mahanian opinion was important in the development of the battleships arms races, and equally important in the agreement of the Powers to limit battleship numbers in the interwar era.[citation needed]
The "fleet in being" suggested battleships could simply by their existence tie down superior enemy resources. This in turn was believed to be able to tip the balance of a conflict even without a battle. This suggested even for inferior naval powers a battleship fleet could have important strategic effect.[citation needed] Tactics
While the role of battleships in both World Wars reflected Mahanian doctrine, the details of battleship deployment were more complex. Unlike ships of the line, the battleships of the late 19th and early 20th centuries had significant vulnerability to torpedoes and mines—because efficient mines and torpedoes did not exist before that[103]—which could be used by relatively small and inexpensive craft. The Jeune École doctrine of the 1870s and 1880s recommended placing torpedo boats alongside battleships; these would hide behind the larger ships until gun-smoke obscured visibility enough for them to dart out and fire their torpedoes.[2] While this tactic was made less effective by the development of smokeless propellant, the threat from more capable torpedo craft (later including submarines) remained. By the 1890s, the Royal Navy had developed the first destroyers, which were initially designed to intercept and drive off any attacking torpedo boats. During the First World War and subsequently, battleships were rarely deployed without a protective screen of destroyers.[104]
Battleship doctrine emphasized the concentration of the battlegroup. In order for this concentrated force to be able to bring its power to bear on a reluctant opponent (or to avoid an encounter with a stronger enemy fleet), battlefleets needed some means of locating enemy ships beyond horizon range. This was provided by scouting forces; at various stages battlecruisers, cruisers, destroyers, airships, submarines and aircraft were all used. (With the development of radio, direction finding and traffic analysis would come into play, as well, so even shore stations, broadly speaking, joined the battlegroup.[105]) So for most of their history, battleships operated surrounded by squadrons of destroyers and cruisers. The North Sea campaign of the First World War illustrates how, despite this support, the threat of mine and torpedo attack, and the failure to integrate or appreciate the capabilities of new techniques,[106] seriously inhibited the operations of the Royal Navy Grand Fleet, the greatest battleship fleet of its time. Strategic and diplomatic impact
The presence of battleships had a great psychological and diplomatic impact. Similar to possessing nuclear weapons today, the ownership of battleships served to enhance a nation's force projection.[2]
Even during the Cold War, the psychological impact of a battleship was significant. In 1946, USS Missouri was dispatched to deliver the remains of the ambassador from Turkey, and her presence in Turkish and Greek waters staved off a possible Soviet thrust into the Balkan region.[107] In September 1983, when Druze militia in Lebanon's Shouf Mountains fired upon U.S. Marine peacekeepers, the arrival of USS New Jersey stopped the firing. Gunfire from New Jersey later killed militia leaders.[108] Value for money
Battleships were the largest and most complex, and hence the most expensive warships of their time; as a result, the value of investment in battleships has always been contested. As the French politician Etienne Lamy wrote in 1879, "The construction of battleships is so costly, their effectiveness so uncertain and of such short duration, that the enterprise of creating an armored fleet seems to leave fruitless the perseverance of a people".[103] The Jeune École school of thought of the 1870s and 1880s sought alternatives to the crippling expense and debatable utility of a conventional battlefleet. It proposed what would nowadays be termed a sea denial strategy, based on fast, long-ranged cruisers for commerce raiding and torpedo boat flotillas to attack enemy ships attempting to blockade French ports. The ideas of the Jeune École were ahead of their time; it was not until the 20th century that efficient mines, torpedoes, submarines, and aircraft were available that allowed similar ideas to be effectively implemented.[103] The determination of powers such as Germany to build battlefleets with which to confront much stronger rivals has been criticized by historians, who emphasise the futility of investment in a battlefleet that has no chance of matching its opponent in an actual battle.[2] Former operators
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Imperial Chinese Navy: lost its two Dingyuan-class battleships Dingyuan and Zhenyuan during the Battle of Weihaiwei in 1895. Austro-Hungarian Navy: lost its entire navy following the collapse of the Empire at the end of World War I. Royal Yugoslav Navy: its only battleship, KB Jugoslavija, was sunk by Italian frogmen during the 1918 Raid on Pula. Navy of the Ukrainian People's Republic: lost its entire navy upon its conquest by the Bolsheviks in 1921. Turkish Naval Forces: sole surviving battleship TCG Turgut Reis was decommissioned in 1933. Spanish Navy: lost its two surviving España-class battleships during the Spanish Civil War, both in 1937. Royal Hellenic Navy: lost its two Mississippi-class battleships during the German bombing of Salamis in 1941. Kriegsmarine: scuttled its two surviving Deutschland-class battleships in 1945, during the closing months of World War II. Imperial Japanese Navy: surrendered its sole surviving battleship, Nagato to the United States following World War II. Brazilian Navy: decommissioned its last battleship Minas Geraes in 1952. Italian Navy: decommissioned its two Andrea Doria-class battleships in 1953. Soviet Navy: decommissioned its last two Gangut-class battleships in 1956. Argentine Navy: decommissioned its last battleship ARA Rivadavia in 1957. Chilean Navy: decommissioned its last battleship, Almirante Latorre in 1958. Royal Navy: decommissioned its last battleship, HMS Vanguard in 1960. French Navy: decommissioned its last battleship, Jean Bart in 1970. United States Navy: decommissioned its last battleship USS Missouri in 1992. She was the last active battleship of any navy.
See also
Arsenal ship List of battleships List of sunken battleships List of ships of World War II List of battleships of World War I List of battleships of World War II
Notes
Stoll, J. Steaming in the Dark?, Journal of Conflict Resolution Vol. 36 No. 2, June 1992. Sondhaus, L. Naval Warfare 1815–1914, ISBN 0-415-21478-5. Herwig pp. 35, 41, 42. Mahan 1890/Dover 1987 pp. 2, 3. Preston 1982, p. 24. Corbett (2015) Vol. II, pp. 332, 333, "So was consummated perhaps the most decisive and complete naval victory in history" Breyer p. 115. Massie (1991) p. 471. Friedman (2013) p. 68, Captain Pakenham, British observer at Tsushima; "...When 12 inch guns are firing, 10 inch guns go unnoticed...Everything in this war has tended to emphasise the vast importance to a ship...of carrying some of the heaviest and furthest-shooting guns that can be got into her." Corbett (2015) Vol. 1, pp. 380, 381; the Russians turned back after Admiral Vitgeft was killed aboard his flagship, the battleship Tzesarevich; to remain bottled up in Port Arthur, pending arrival of the Russian Baltic Fleet in 1905. Known as the Battle of August 10 in Russia. Jeremy Black, "Jutland's Place in History", Naval History (June 2016) 30#3 pp. 16–21. O'Connell, Robert J. (1993). Sacred vessels: the cult of the battleship and the rise of the U.S. Navy. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508006-3. [page needed] Lenton, H. T.: Krigsfartyg efter 1860 "battleship" The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online. Oxford University Press. April 4, 2000. "Napoleon (90 guns), the first purpose-designed screw line of battleships", Steam, Steel and Shellfire, Conway's History of the Ship, p. 39. "Hastened to completion Le Napoleon was launched on May 16, 1850, to become the world's first true steam battleship", Steam, Steel and Shellfire, Conway's History of the Ship, p. 39. Lambert, Andrew (1984). Battleships in Transition, Conway, ISBN 0-85177-315-X pp. 144–47. In addition, the Navy of the North Germany Confederacy (which included Prussia) bought HMS Renown from Britain in 1870 for use as a gunnery training ship. "The canon-obusier [shell gun] originally constructed by Colonel Paixhans for the French Naval Service ... was subsequently designated the canon-obusier of 80, No 1 of 1841 ... the diameter of the bore is 22 centimetres (8.65 inches)." From Douglas, Sir Howard, A Treatise on Naval Gunnery 1855 (Conway Maritime Press, 1982; reprinting 1855 edition), p. 201 ISBN 0-85177-275-7. The British undertook trials with shell guns at HMS Excellent starting in 1832. A Treatise on Naval Gunnery 1855, p. 198. For the U.S. introduction of 8-inch shell guns into the armament of line-of-battle ships in 1841, see Spencer Tucker, Arming the Fleet, US Navy Ordnance in the Muzzle-Loading Era (U.S. Naval Institute Pres, 1989), p. 149. ISBN 0-87021-007-6. Lambert, Andrew D, The Crimean War, British Grand Strategy Against Russia, 1853–56, Manchester University Press, 1990, ISBN 0-7190-3564-3, pp. 60–61. Lambert, Andrew: Battleships in Transition, pp. 92–96. Clowes, William Laird, Four Modern Naval Campaigns, Unit Library, 1902, republished Cornmarket Press, 1970, ISBN 0-7191-2020-9, p. 68. Clowes, William Laird. Four Modern Naval Campaigns, pp. 54–55, 63. Wilson, H. W. Ironclads in Action – Vol 1, London, 1898, p. 240. Gibbons, Tony. The Complete Encyclopedia of Battleships, pp. 28–29. Gibbons, pp. 30–31. Gibbons, p. 93. Conway Marine, "Steam, Steel and Shellfire", p. 96. Gibbons, Tony: The Complete Encyclopedia of Battleships, p. 101. Beeler, John (2001). Birth of the battleship: British capital ship design 1870–1881. Annapoli, MD: Naval Institute Press. p. 224. Retrieved October 23, 2015. Hill, Richard. War at Sea in the Ironclad Age, ISBN 0-304-35273-X. [page needed] Kennedy 1983, p. 209. Preston 1989, p. [page needed]. Preston, Antony (1972). Battleships of World War I. New York: Galahad Books. ISBN 0883653001.[page needed] Gibbons, p. 168. Burgess; Heilbrun, Edwin; Margaret (January 11, 2013). "Dreadnaught: Britain, Germany, and the Coming of the Great War". Library Journal. 138 (18): 53. Retrieved October 23, 2015. Cuniberti, Vittorio, "An Ideal Battleship for the British Fleet", All The World's Fighting Ships, 1903, pp. 407–09. Corbett (2015) Vol. 1 pp. 380, 381 Corbett (2015) Vol. II p. 246 Corbett (2015) Vol. II p. 445. Evans and Peattie, Kaigun, p. 159. Burr, Lawrence (2006). British Battlecruisers 1914–18. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. pp. 4–7. ISBN 978-1-84603-008-6. Gibbons, pp. 170–71. "The Battleship Dreadnought: Technological, Economic and Strategic Contexts", The Dreadnought and the Edwardian Age, Routledge, pp. 179–196, December 5, 2016, doi:10.4324/9781315240213-21, ISBN 9781315240213, retrieved September 24, 2023 Ireland, Bernard Janes War at Sea, p. 66. Gilbert, Adrian (2000). The encyclopedia of warfare: from earliest time to the present day, Part 25. Taylor & Francis. p. 224. ISBN 978-1-57958-216-6. Archived from the original on July 26, 2020. Retrieved April 17, 2012. Keegan, p. 289. "Are Battleships Obsolete?". the Wells Brothers. 2001. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved January 15, 2015. Ireland, Bernard: Jane's War At Sea, pp. 88–95. Padfield 1972, p. 240. Andrew Marr's The Making of Modern Britain Episode 3. Massie, Robert. Castles of Steel, London, 2005. pp. 127–45. Compton-Hall, Richard (2004). Submarines at War 1914–18. Periscope Publishing Ltd. pp. 155–62. ISBN 978-1-904381-21-1. Massie, Robert. Castles of Steel, London, 2005. pp. 675. Kennedy 1983, pp. 247–249. Ireland, Bernard: Jane's War At Sea, p. 118. Friedman, Norman. U.S. Battleships, pp. 181–82. Kennedy 1983, p. 277. Ireland, Bernard. Jane's War at Sea, pp. 124–26, 139–42. Sumrall, Robert. The Battleship and Battlecruiser, in Gardiner, R: The Eclipse of the Big Gun. Conway Maritime, London. ISBN 0-85177-607-8. pp. 25–28. Kennedy 1983, p. 199. From the Guinness Book of Air Facts and Feats (3rd edition, 1977): "The first air attack using a torpedo dropped by an aeroplane was carried out by Flight Commander Charles H. K. Edmonds, flying a Short 184 seaplane from HMS Ben-my-Chree on August 12, 1915, against a 5,000 ton (5,080 tonne) Turkish supply ship in the Sea of Marmara. Although the enemy ship was hit and sunk, the captain of a British submarine claimed to have fired a torpedo simultaneously and sunk the ship. It was further stated that the British submarine E14 had attacked and immobilised the ship four days earlier. However, on August 17, 1915, another Turkish ship was sunk by a torpedo of whose origin there can be no doubt. On this occasion Flight Commander C. H. Edmonds, flying a Short 184, torpedoed a Turkish steamer a few miles north of the Dardanelles. His formation colleague, Flight Lieutenant G. B. Dacre, was forced to land on the water owing to engine trouble but, seeing an enemy tug close by, taxied up to it and released his torpedo. The tug blew up and sank. Thereafter, Dacre was able to take off and return to the Ben-my-Chree." Boyne, Walter J. "The Spirit of Billy Mitchell" Archived June 20, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. Air Force Magazine, June 1996. "Vice Admiral Alfred Wilkinson Johnson, USN Ret. The Naval Bombing Experiments: Bombing Operations (1959)". History.navy.mil. Archived from the original on April 9, 2010. Retrieved January 31, 2009. Jeffers, H. Paul (2006). Billy Mitchell: The Life, Times, and Battles of America's Prophet of Air Power. Zenith Press. ISBN 0-7603-2080-2. [page needed] "CombinedFleet.com". Combinedfleet.com. Archived from the original on February 3, 2009. Retrieved January 31, 2009. Fuller, John (1945). Armament and history; a study of the influence of armament on history from the dawn of classical warfare to the second World War [by] Major General J.F.C. Fuller. New York: Scribner's Sons. Retrieved October 23, 2015. Gibbons, p. 195. Greger, René. Schlachtschiffe der Welt, p. 251. Gibbons, p. 163. Gibbons, pp. 246–47. Axell, Albert: Kamikaze, p. 14. Gibbons, pp. 262–63. Samuel Eliot Morison, History of US Naval Operations in World War II Vol. 12, Leyte, p. 226. Jentschura, Dieter, Mickel p. 39. Operation 'Crossroads' – the Bikini A-bomb tests, in Ireland, Bernard (1996). Jane's Battleships of the 20th Century. New York: HarperCollins. pp. 186–87. ISBN 978-0-00-470997-0. Fitzsimons, Bernard, ed. (technical assistance from Bill Gunston, Antony Preston, & Ian Hogg) Illustrated Encyclopedia of 20th Century Weapons and Warfare. London: Phoebus, 1978, Volume 2, p. 114. Fitzsimons, Volume 20, p. 2213, "Richelieu". No mention of her sister, Jean Bart. Gardiner, Robert (Ed.); (1980); Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1922–1946; ISBN 0-85177-146-7; p. 260. Fitzsimons, Volume 15, p. 1636, "King George V" Fitzsimons, Volume 23, p. 2554, "Vanguard" Gardiner, pp. 7, 14. Fitzsimons, Volume 10, p. 1086, "Gangut" Fitzsimons, Volume 17, p. 1896, "Minas Gerais" Fitzsimons, Volume 1, p. 84, "Almirante Latorre" Gardiner, p. 368. McLaughlin, Stephen (2006). Jordan, John (ed.). Project 82: The Stalingrad Class. Warship 2006. London: Conway. p. 117. ISBN 978-1-84486-030-2. Gardiner, p. 222. Polmar, p. 129. History of World Seapower, Bernard Brett, ISBN 0-603-03723-2, p. 236. "Global Defence Review : Defence Power". April 26, 2009. Archived from the original on April 26, 2009. Naval Vessel Register for BB61. U.S. Navy, December 14, 2009. Retrieved November 19, 2013. Naval Vessel Register for BB64. U.S. Navy, April 30, 2012. Retrieved November 19, 2013. "Iowa Class Battleship". Federation of American Scientists. Archived from the original on May 31, 2009. Retrieved March 18, 2007. The Military Balance 2010. Routledge for The International Institute for Strategic Studies. 2010. ISBN 978-1857435573 – via Google Books. "TARGET&ЗВО". Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved November 20, 2013. The Military Balance 2014. Routledge for The International The International Institute of Strategic Studies. 2014. ISBN 978-1857437225. Archived from the original on July 26, 2021. Retrieved July 26, 2021 – via Google Books. "WCBC files lawsuit" Archived April 16, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. Associated Press. April 14, 2010. Retrieved April 15, 2010. "Battleship Cove: Exhibits". USS Massachusetts Memorial Committee. Archived from the original on April 2, 2013. Retrieved April 21, 2013. "Battleship Updates". The Battleship Texas Foundation. October 9, 1921. Archived from the original on October 21, 2021. Retrieved October 21, 2021. Massie, Robert K. Castles of Steel, London, 2005. ISBN 1-84413-411-3. [page needed] Mahan, A.T., Captain, U.S. Navy. Influence of Sea Power on History, 1660–1783. Boston: Little Brown, passim. Kennedy 1983, pp. 2, 200, 206. Dahl, Erik J. (Autumn 2005). "Net-Centric before its time: The Jeune École and Its Lessons for Today". Naval War College Review. 58 (4). Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved June 29, 2015. "Battleships, Mines, and Torpedoes". Canadian Magazine. 22: 501–02. March 1904. Retrieved October 23, 2015. It could presage an enemy sortie, or locate an enemy over the horizon. Beesly, Patrick. Room 40 (London: Hamish Hamilton) Beesly. [page needed] "USS Missouri". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Naval Historical Center. Archived from the original on April 9, 2010. Retrieved March 18, 2007.
"USS New Jersey". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Archived from the original on February 3, 2007. Retrieved March 18, 2007.
References
Appel, Erik; et al. (2001). Finland i krig 1939–1940 – första delen (in Swedish). Espoo, Finland: Schildts förlag Ab. p. 261. ISBN 978-951-50-1182-4. Archibald, E. H. H. (1984). The Fighting Ship in the Royal Navy 1897–1984. Blandford. ISBN 978-0-7137-1348-0. Axell, Albert; et al. (2004). Kamikaze – Japans självmordspiloter (in Swedish). Lund, Sweden: Historiska media. p. 316. ISBN 978-91-85057-09-2. Brown, D. K. (2003). Warrior to Dreadnought: Warship Development 1860–1905. Book Sales. ISBN 978-1-84067-529-0. Brown, D. K. (2003). The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906–1922. Caxton Editions. p. 208. ISBN 978-1-84067-531-3. Brunila, Kai; et al. (2000). Finland i krig 1940–1944 – andra delen (in Swedish). Espoo, Finland: Schildts förlag Ab. p. 285. ISBN 978-951-50-1140-4. Burr, Lawrence (2006). British Battlecruisers 1914–18. New Vanguard No. 126. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84603-008-6. Corbett, Sir Julian. "Maritime Operations in the Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905." (1994). Originally Classified and in two volumes. ISBN 1-55750-129-7. Corbett, Sir Julian. "Maritime Operations in the Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905." Volume I (2015) Originally published in January 1914. Naval Institute Press ISBN 978-1-59114-197-6 Corbett, Sir Julian. "Maritime Operations in the Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905." Volume II (2015) Originally published in October 1915. Naval Institute Press ISBN 978-1-59114-198-3 Friedman, Norman (1984). U.S. Battleships: An Illustrated History. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-715-9. Friedman, Norman (2013). "Naval Firepower, Battleship Guns and Gunnery in the Dreadnaught Era." Seaforth Publishing, Great Britain. ISBN 978-1-84832-185-4 Gray, Randal (1985). Gardiner, Robert (ed.). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1906–1921. Naval Institute Press. p. 439. ISBN 978-0-87021-907-8. Gardiner, Robert, ed. (1980). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1922–1946. Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 978-0-85177-146-5. Gardiner, Robert; Lambert, Andrew, eds. (2001). Steam, Steel and Shellfire: The steam warship 1815–1905 – Conway's History of the Ship. Book Sales. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-7858-1413-9. Gibbons, Tony (1983). The Complete Encyclopedia of Battleships and Battlecruisers – A Technical Directory of all the World's Capital Ships from 1860 to the Present Day. London: Salamander Books Ltd. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-517-37810-6. Greger, René (1993). Schlachtschiffe der Welt (in German). Stuttgart: Motorbuch Verlag. p. 260. ISBN 978-3-613-01459-6. Ireland, Bernard and Grove, Eric (1997). Jane's War at Sea 1897–1997. London: Harper Collins Publishers. p. 256. ISBN 978-0-00-472065-4. Jacobsen, Alf R. (2005). Dödligt angrepp – miniubåtsräden mot slagskeppet Tirpitz (in Swedish). Stockholm: Natur & Kultur. p. 282. ISBN 978-91-27-09897-8. Jentschura, Hansgeorg; Jung, Dieter; Mickel, Peter (1976). Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-893-4. Keegan, John (1999). The First World War. Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-6645-9. Kennedy, Paul M. (1983). The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery. London. ISBN 978-0-333-35094-2. Lambert, Andrew (1984). Battleships in Transition – The Creation of the Steam Battlefleet 1815–1860. London: Conway Maritime Press. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-85177-315-5. Lenton, H. T. (1971). Krigsfartyg efter 1860 (in Swedish). Stockholm: Forum AB. p. 160. Linder, Jan; et al. (2002). Ofredens hav – Östersjön 1939–1992 (in Swedish). Avesta, Sweden: Svenska Tryckericentralen AB. p. 224. ISBN 978-91-631-2035-0. Mahan, Alfred Thayer (1987). The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-0-486-25509-5. Massie, Robert (2005). Castles of Steel: Britain, Germany and the Winning of the Great War at Sea. London: Pimlico. ISBN 978-1-84413-411-3. O'Connell, Robert L. (1991). Sacred Vessels: the Cult of the Battleship and the Rise of the U.S. Navy. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-1116-6. Padfield, Peter (1972). The Battleship Era. London: Military Book Society. OCLC 51245970. Parkes, Oscar (1990). British Battleships. first published Seeley Service & Co, 1957, published United States Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-55750-075-5. Pleshakov, Constantine (2002). The Tsar's Last Armada; The Epic Voyage to the Battle of Tsushima. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-05791-7. Polmar, Norman. The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the US Fleet. 2001, Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-656-6. Preston, Antony (1982). Battleships. Bison books. ISBN 978-0-86124-063-0. Preston, Antony (1989). Jane's Fighting Ships of World War II. London, UK: Random House Ltd. p. 320. ISBN 978-1-85170-494-1. Russel, Scott J. (1861). The Fleet of the Future. London. Sondhaus, Lawrence (2001). Naval Warfare 1815–1914. London. ISBN 978-0-415-21478-0. Sondhaus, Lawrence (2004). Navies in Modern World History. London. ISBN 978-1-86189-202-7. Stilwell, Paul (2001). Battleships. New York: MetroBooks. p. 160. ISBN 978-1-58663-044-7. Tamelander, Michael; et al. (2006). Slagskeppet Tirpitz – kampen om Norra Ishavet (in Swedish). Norstedts Förlag. p. 363. ISBN 978-91-1-301554-5. Taylor, A. J. P. (Red.); et al. (1975). 1900-talet: Vår tids historia i ord och bild; Part 12 (in Swedish). Helsingborg: Bokfrämjandet. p. 159. Wetterholm, Claes-Göran (2002). Dödens hav – Östersjön 1945 (in Swedish). Stockholm, Sweden: Bokförlaget Prisma. p. 279. ISBN 978-91-518-3968-4. Wilson, H. W. (1898). Ironclads in Action – Vol 1. London. Zetterling, Niklas; et al. (2004). Bismarck – Kampen om Atlanten (in Swedish). Stockholm: Nordstedts förlag. p. 312. ISBN 978-91-1-301288-9.
Further reading
Breyer, Siegfried (1973). Battleships and Battlecruisers of the world, 1905–1970. London: Macdonald/Jane's. ISBN 978-0-356-04191-9. Herwig, Holger (1980). Luxury Fleet, The Imperial German Navy 1888–1918. Ashfield Press. ISBN 978-0-948660-03-0. Mahan, Alred Thayer. Reflections, Historic and Other, Suggested by the Battle of the Japan Sea. By Captain A. T. Mahan, US Navy. US Naval Proceedings magazine; June 1906, volume XXXIV, number 2. United States Naval Institute Press. Massie, Robert (1991). Dreadnought: Britain, Germany and the Coming of the Great War. Random House, NY. ISBN 978-0-394-52833-5. Taylor, Bruce, ed. The world of the battleship: The design and careers of capital ships of the world's navies, 1900–1950 (US Naval Institute Press, 2017). 224 pp. ISBN 978-1-848-32178-6.
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